Organizational Behavior, Global Edition Stephen Robbins, Timothy

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 599Written TestsLong popular as selection methods, written employment tests—traditionally called paper-and-pencil tests, although most are now available online—declined in use between the late 1960s and mid-1980s, especially in the United States. They were frequently characterized as discriminatory, and many organizations had not validated them as job-related. Since then, however, there has been a resurgence. Today, many organizations have at least considered using one or more tests. SHRM reports that up to one-third of thousands of surveyed organizations use written tests in their selection procedures.81 Managers recognize that valid tests can help predict who will be successful on the job.82 Applicants, however, tend to view written tests as less valid and fair than interviews or performance tests (discussed later in this section).83 Typical tests include (1) intelligence or cognitive ability tests, (2) personality tests, and (3) integrity tests.Intelligence or Cognitive Ability Tests Tests of intellectual ability/cognitive ability/intelligence (the terms are sometimes used interchangeably), spatial and mechanical ability, perceptual accuracy, and motor ability (see the chapter on personality and individual differences) have long proven valid predictors for the performance of many skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled operative jobs.84 Overall, intelligence tests have proven to be particularly good predictors for jobs that include cognitively complex tasks (e.g., computer programming and software engineers). Many experts say intelligence tests are the single best selection measure across jobs and that they are at least as valid in the European Union (EU) as in the United States.85While cognitive ability tests have long been considered to measure a single, unified cognitive capacity, some recent work suggests that they may be useful tests for different specific abilities depending on the job requirements.85 For example, differentiating mathematical, verbal, and technical abilities in hiring processes may lead to better predictions of job performance than relying on just one overall cognitive ability score. If cognitive ability tests are so predictive of performance, why do only 16 to 18 percent of organizations surveyed by SHRM use them?87 The answer lies in their disparate impact (see the chapter on diversity, equity, and inclusion in organizations). Of all the substantive selection methods we discuss in this section, cognitive ability tests lead to the most disparate impact.88Personality Tests Personality tests are inexpensive and simple to administer (see the chapter on personality and individual differences for more in-depth descriptions). Their use has grown over the years. According to SHRM, personality tests are most frequently given to executives and middle managers. However, they also tend to be administered to individual contributors and hourly employees, albeit at a lower rate.89 In general, researchers view personality tests positively, who remark that traits such as conscientiousness and extroversion predict performance in organizations.Moreover, concerns about applicants faking responses remain. It is fairly easy to claim to be hard-working, motivated, and dependable when asked in a job application setting, even if that is not accurate and partly because applicants are not always aware they are faking.90 Comparing self-reported personality to observer-rated personality found that observer ratings can predict job performance and other behaviors, suggesting hiring managers seek out people who know the applicants well to fill out personality tests on their behalf.90Integrity Tests As ethical problems in organizations have increased, integrity tests have gained popularity. These tests assess a candidate’s propensity to behave (un)ethically.92 They have proven to be powerful alternatives to inaccurate M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 599 13/12/22 3:21 AM

600 PART 4    The Organization Systemintegrity measures, such as polygraphs, in predicting unethical employee behaviors such as theft.92 Integrity tests can potentially predict job performance (as measured as objectively as possible by supervisors) and of the potential for theft, discipline problems, and excessive absenteeism,93 with little disparate impact.94However, the many available tests do not all predict job performance outcomes equally well. In practice, integrity tests may not be as accurate as we might hope, may be easily faked depending upon the measure, and applicants react negatively to them, especially when they are misclassified or stigmatized as a result.95Managers must be careful to choose integrity tests carefully and cautiously, use these tests only if there is a business necessity, and ensure that they link the need for an integrity test to the job requirements (e.g., handling sensitive information).Performance-Simulation TestsWhat better way to determine whether applicants can do a job successfully than by having them do it? That is precisely the logic of performance-simulation tests. Although they are more complicated to develop and administer than standardized tests, performance-simulation tests tend to not only have the highest validity (because they essentially duplicate the job), but they have higher face validity as well (e.g., whether applicants perceive the measures to be accurate). Performance simulations are commonly implemented through work samples, assessment centers, and situational judgment tests.Work Sample Tests Work sample tests are hands-on simulations of part or all the work that applicants to the job routinely must perform. Applicants’ performance on each element of the work sample measures their capability to perform a job with more specificity than written aptitude and personality tests, which are targeted more toward competencies that predict performance (e.g., traits and abilities).97 Work samples are widely used to hire skilled workers such as welders, machinists, carpenters, and electricians. Work sample tests are increasingly used for all levels of employment.98 However, they differ in their level of fidelity. Highfidelity work samples seek to duplicate the task itself. But what if it is unrealistic, work sample tests Hands-on simulations of part or all of the work that applicants for routine jobs must perform.Source: Michael S. Williamson/The Washington Post/Getty ImagesAt this Sarku Japan fast-food restaurant, employees applying for management positions must take written tests as part of the company’s substantive selection process. Written tests for intelligence, integrity, personality, and interests are popular selection methods that help predict which applicants will be successful on the job.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 600 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 601unfeasible, or even dangerous to reproduce the task? Lower-fidelity work samples, such as virtual reality simulations, enable the organization to provide similar work samples without the dangers associated with reproducing the task.99Assessment Centers A more elaborate set of performance-simulation tests, typically designed to evaluate a candidate’s managerial potential, is administered in assessment centers.100 Line executives, supervisors, and/or trained psychologists evaluate candidates as they go through one to several days of exercises that simulate real problems they would confront on the job.101 For example, a candidate might be required to role-play a manager who must decide how to respond to ten memos in an in-basket within two hours. Assessment centers are good predictors of performance; however, some debate their validity because ratings may be confounded by many factors.102 For example, the results of assessment center exercises may be affected by whether it is easy for applicants to guess the traits needed to perform well or by the disposition and initial impressions of role players.103Situational Judgment Tests To reduce the costs of job simulations, many organizations have started to use situational judgment tests, which ask applicants how they would perform in a variety of job situations and then compare their answers to the answers of high-performing employees.104 For example, an applicant to a call center might be presented with a fictitious transcript of an angry customer and then asked to choose the best response from a series of options. Ultimately, the lower cost of the situational judgment test may make it a better choice for some organizations than a more elaborate work sample or assessment center experience. Moreover, they tend to have moderate validity and relatively low disparate impact, making them an attractive substantive method choice.105Coaching can improve scores on these tests, though, and research has demonstrated that applicants can identify the correct answers even if the situation is masked or removed from the assessment.106 In other words, an applicant would choose the correct answer to the angry customer situation described earlier, even without the transcript. These issues raise questions about whether they reflect true judgment or merely good test preparation.107InterviewsOf all the selection methods that organizations worldwide use to differentiate candidates, the interview has always been standard practice. It also tends to have a disproportionate amount of influence. Overreliance on interviews is problematic because extensive evidence shows that impression management techniques (see the chapter on power and politics) such as self-promotion have a strong effect on interviewer preferences even when the displayed traits are unrelated to the job.108Conversely, the candidate who performs poorly in the employment interview is likely to be cut from the applicant pool regardless of experience, test scores, or letters of recommendation. And unfortunately, candidates can be rated lower for something as trivial as a blemish on their faces, one study found.109In practice, most organizations use interviews for many reasons. Companies such as Southwest Airlines, Disney, Bank of America, Microsoft, and Procter & Gamble use interviews to assess applicant–organization fit. In addition to evaluating specific, job-related skills, managers look at personality characteristics and personal values to find individuals who fit the organization’s culture and image. Some companies also use job interviews as a recruiting tool, trying to “sell” applicants on the value of the job and organization. This strategy may sometimes be necessary because of a tight labor market, but it may also be problematic. One study showed that interviewers who were trying to promote the organization assessment centers Off-site locations where candidates are given a set of performance-simulation tests designed to evaluate their managerial potential.situational judgment tests Substantive selection tests that ask applicants how they would perform in a variety of job situations; the answers are then compared to the answers of high-performing employees.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 601 13/12/22 3:21 AM

602 PART 4    The Organization Systemduring interviews were significantly worse at identifying applicant qualifications than those who focused exclusively on assessing candidate qualifications.110Interviews are either structured or unstructured. The popular unstructured interview—short, casual, and made up of improvised questions—is simply not a very effective selection method.111 The data it gathers is typically biased and often only modestly related to future job performance. Still, managers are reluctant to use structured interviews—planned interviews designed to gather job-related information—in place of their favorite questions,112 such as “If you could be any animal, what would you be, and why?” Structured interviews limit subjectivity as much as possible and therefore, can provide more reliable responses. For instance, applicants in one structured interview process were asked questions that gave the interviewer a better understanding of their personalities. In one interview question (designed to reflect extroversion), interviewers asked: “Sometimes you meet a lot of new people. Think of a situation where you participated in a one or two-day training... workshop and where you did not know the other participants... Please describe exactly how you perceived this situation and what you did in this situation to interact with the other participants.”113 This is an excellent start in that the question prompts open-ended responses and is standardized for all candidates.114Contingent Selection TestsIf applicants pass the substantive selection methods, they are ready to be hired, contingent on final checks. One common contingent check is a drug test. Publix grocery stores make tentative offers to applicants contingent on their passing a drug test,115 as do many other organizations.Drug Testing Drug testing is controversial. Many applicants think testing without reasonable suspicion is invasive or unfair. They should be tested on job-performance factors, not lifestyle choices that may not be relevant. Employers might counter that drug use and abuse are extremely costly, not just in financial terms but also in considering people’s safety. In fact, research has revealed that the average drug user is 3.6 times more likely to be involved unstructured interviews Short, casual interviews made up of improvised questions.structured interviews Planned interviews designed to gather job-related information.Source: Patrick Fallon/Bloomberg/Getty ImagesArcadio Cruz (left) uses a structured interview approach in gathering information from job applicants for positions at Orchard Hardware Supply store in Los Angeles. Questions asked in structured interviews are objective and standardized for all applicants and encourage openended responses.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 602 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 603in an accident, receives three times the amount of sick pay and benefits, is five times more likely to make a workers’ compensation claim, and misses ten times more workdays than those who do not use drugs. In the United States, employers have the law on their side.116 Moreover, drug use involves increased costs of $81 billion annually in lost productivity, absenteeism, and increased health care costs.117 The Supreme Court has concluded that drug tests are “minimally invasive” selection procedures that, as a rule, do not violate individuals’ rights.But are drug tests accurate? Have they been shown to lead to the improvement of hiring? First of all, many contest the accuracy of drug tests. Some HR professionals refer to them as “obsolete” outside occupations that require public trust.118 Of the thousands and thousands of people who take urine drug tests in the United States, the positivity rate has been consistently below 6 percent since 1996.119 This suggests that drug tests may be relatively insensitive and unreliable to measure drug usage in the workforce or that applicants can easily “game” the test (dilute, alter, or substitute samples).Moreover, there is not much research on whether drug tests result in the intended outcomes. However, one large-scale study at the U.S. Postal Service found that its drug testing and screening program reduced absenteeism and turnover but did not affect accidents or injuries.120 Given the lack of validity evidence and poor accuracy evidence, many maintain that drug testing does not accomplish what it was intended to accomplish. Although not a common approach, some researchers suggested that instead of using invasive drug testing, hiring managers could administer personality tests geared toward a propensity for drug abuse and other risky behavior (e.g., thrill-seeking, unethical behavior rationalization, tolerating others’ unethical behavior).121Medical Examinations Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA; described in a later section) U.S. firms may not require employees to pass a medical exam before a job offer is made. However, they can conduct medical exams after making a contingent offer—but only to determine whether an applicant is physically or mentally able to do the job. Employers also sometimes use medical exams to find out whether and how they can accommodate employees with disabilities. For jobs requiring exposure to heavy physical or psychological demands, such as air traffic controllers or firefighters, medical exams may be an important indicator of the ability to perform.122 However, like drug testing, the validity of these types of exams is not very compelling. Even more worrisome, it is difficult to establish that a medical examination is necessary and job-related.Therefore, hiring managers who consider using medical examinations as a contingent method should follow medical standards and focus only on the exact health conditions proven to adversely affect performance. As an example, truck-driving and carrier companies are required by the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) to administer contingent medical examinations. However, in doing so, they must also comply with the EEOC and ADA. Carriers can reduce the likelihood of litigation by focusing directly on specific medical conditions, such as hearing and visual conditions, that are directly related to driving success and safety instead of conducting broad “physicals.”123Training and DevelopmentCompetent employees do not remain competent forever. Competence deteriorates and can become obsolete, and new skills need to be learned. That is why corporations in the United States spend over $70 billion annually on 17-4   Compare the main types of training.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 603 13/12/22 3:21 AM

604 PART 4    The Organization Systemtraining.124 Organizations from retail, wholesale, and customer service industries dedicate over $10 million annually to training in their budgets.125 The number one goal of training is for it to transfer. This transfer of training refers to utilizing the knowledge, skills, and abilities learned from training on the job.126 What good is dedicating millions and billions of dollars to training if no one puts it to use? When training is done well, it can help boost the organization’s human capital and even the employees’ career competencies, transferrable to future jobs.127What does training look like? On-the-job training methods include job rotation, apprenticeships, and understudy assignments. U.S. companies have been increasingly using longer-term job rotations to cross-train employees and to foster collaboration.128 For instance, companies like ADP and Verizon offer their employees the opportunity to learn about different jobs and aspects of the business processes through job rotation.129 However, on-the-job training methods often disrupt the flow of work or would be better performed removed from the work context.Therefore, organizations also invest in off-the-job training. Most of the expenditures we cited earlier for training are largely spent on this formal, off-the-job variety, the most popular method being live workshops or sessions (or multiple workshops organized within training programs). But it also encompasses self-directed training, e-learning, mobile learning, webinars, podcasts, and massively open online courses (MOOCs).Larger organizations are increasingly building corporate universities to house formal training programs and have been doing so since the 1960s (although many perhaps incorrectly assume they are a recent development!).130For example, JetBlue University in Orlando, Florida, trains airline pilots and supporting flight crews on the policies, practices, and procedures all in one place, simulating real-world flight scenarios (which would not be acceptable to hold on the job).131 The formal instruction given in the corporate university classes is often supplemented with informal online training or informal experiential training.132transfer of training Utilizing the knowledge, skills, and abilities learned from training on the job.Source: Jim West/Alamy Stock PhotoOff-the-job training at Chrysler’s World Class Manufacturing Academy includes hands-on and classroom learning for engineers and plant employees that teaches them how to reduce waste and increase productivity and quality. Shown here is an employee using a human motion capture system to learn how to analyze the movements of assembly-line workers.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 604 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 605Training ContentTraining can include everything from teaching employees simple machine operation, improving executive leadership, helping employees become more accepting of diversity, and increasing work–life balance (discussed later in the chapter).132 Throughout the text, we have described several different training foci, from leadership to diversity to ethics. The goal of training is for employees to learn something and enhance their knowledge by acquiring knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics the organization can draw on as human capital resources (discussed earlier).134Although some do not make this distinction, training is different from education. Education primarily focuses on acquiring knowledge, such as facts and figures necessary to do a job or the steps in a complicated process. Training, on the other hand, spans beyond merely acquiring knowledge toward application. Training is more concerned with building skills, developing abilities, and even acquiring competencies like adaptability, emotional competence, and leadership.As a student, you have been working toward acquiring many basic skills (e.g., reading, math, problem-solving, critical thinking) that may be transferable to your career. On the other hand, most training that organizations offer are focused on technical skills (e.g., learning how to effectively use new software, programs, applications; learning how to code in various programming languages) or soft skills (e.g., managing and regulating one’s emotions effectively; building relationships; communicating clearly and efficiently). One area of soft skills that is particularly important in the workplace is ethics training, which focuses on recognizing moral issues, regulating moral emotions, considering different perspectives, and acting ethically by treating others with respect and civility. For instance, holding directed conversations about ethics and supporting the reduction of incivility on an ongoing basis is one form of training. Following this intervention, civility, respect, job satisfaction, and trust increased, while incivility, cynicism, and absences decreased.135Training MethodsHistorically, training meant “formal training,” planned in advance and following a structured format. HR departments play a big role in this training. Formal training and development programs are still very much in use. Still, much of the workplace learning occurs in informal training—unstructured, unplanned, and easily adapted for situations and individuals. In reality, most informal training is nothing other than employees helping each other, sharing information, and solving work-related problems together. Regardless, both formal and informal training have important implications for how training is designed, structured, and implemented.Instructional System Design The instructional system design (ISD) approach views training very formally and primarily centers on the role of the training developer and trainer in facilitating employee learning. The ISD approach generally follows the following procedure, also known as the ADDIE model:1361. Analyze: Establish what skills, abilities, or other characteristics needs to be trained. Establish what goals should be accomplished by the training. Define who the trainees would be and what they would need to be successful.2. Design: Establish what training success and failure would look like. Select instructional strategies to meet learning objectives and decide how trainees receive feedback on their performance.3. Develop: Establish where training will occur and what will be needed (e.g., media, applications, other resources) to ensure its success.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 605 13/12/22 3:21 AM

606 PART 4    The Organization System4. Implement: Engage trainees in the training session or program. Provide opportunities for transfer and encourage transfer following training.5. Evaluation: Determine whether the system is successful in the context of the organization (e.g., how much money saved or gained, accidents avoided; how many people trained). Use the information to inform revisions of the training session or program.Although ISD is an extremely useful organizing framework for designing and implementing formal training in organizations that enjoys widespread use,137 it is often criticized for falling short of focusing on the most important person in the training process: the trainee.138Active Learning Addressing the limitations of the more instructor-oriented ISD model, active learning focuses primarily on the trainee or learner. Through encouraging trainees to actively engage and experiment with the training content, trainees can build confidence in their skills, abilities, and competencies, which will increase the likelihood of transfer.139 Active learning primarily consists of three basic tenets: (1) encouraging exploration and reflection, (2) normalizing errors and mistakes, and (3) controlling emotions. For example, an employee learning a new programming language may build some basic programs to accomplish basic tasks, learn from errors (or willfully commit them to see what would happen), and learn to manage the frustrations with making mistakes or not being an expert right away.140Is active learning effective? Recent research on the method suggest that active learning is reacted to positively by trainees, leads to knowledge and skill acquisition, and also facilitates transfer performance.141 Why? It may be because trainee motivation plays a key role in training success, influencing whether trainees learn the material and apply it, as well as how trainees feel about it.142As trainees become more actively engaged with the training content and move away from being passive recipients their learning increases.143However, trainees may find it frustrating if they are given all of the materials to learn and told to “get to it” without any direction. Many trainees benefit from working with other people (e.g., trainers or peers) who can offer feedback, guide them toward learning, support their incites, and offer explanations when necessary.144 Moreover, active learning appears to be more effective when used in moderation and for learning cognitive skills (rather than knowledge or facts).145 It also may not work for everyone—trainees who are motivated to learn the content will likely be more successful than those who just want to avoid failure or otherwise prove their worth (the sting of making mistakes or errors may be hard for them to handle).146Interactive Learning Interactive learning builds upon active learning to suggest that learning is a social construction created from interacting people (e.g., trainers–trainees, trainees–trainees).147 Therefore, training methods should create conditions not only in which the learner is actively engaging in training content, but doing so in a social context with other people.147 For instance, one study of thousands of students across eighteen high schools showed that positive teacher–student relationships mattered in facilitating student engagement with the content. If students have more negative than positive relationships with teachers, they tend to be less engaged with the content.149Research in the workplace suggests that the relationships between people matter for training outcomes in organizations. For instance, one study of over ten thousand teachers found that the learner’s satisfaction with training was more attributable to the trainer than the course’s content.150 Moreover, transfer of training is inevitably dependent upon the culture and climate of the M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 606 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 607organization. If you attend ethics training but everyone in your workplace discourages you from taking it seriously, rewards you for ignoring the training, or even ostracizes you for following through with what you learn, the skills you learn will not likely transfer. Therefore, interactive learning may be important as teams and units emerge from the training together on the same page. For example, research on city council workers participating in safety training are more likely to transfer if everyone—supervisors, coworkers, and safety professionals alike—take responsibility for what was learned.151 Training developers can encourage interactive participation even after training through collective group reflections and debriefs (e.g., after-action reviews [AARs]).152E-Learning The fastest-growing training method is computer-based training, or e-training or e-learning.153 E-learning systems emphasize learner control over the pace and content of instruction, allow e-learners to interact through online communities, and incorporate other techniques such as simulations and group discussions.154 Therefore, e-learning approaches seek to emphasize the best elements of active and interactive learning in a boundless, electronic environment.155 Computer-based training that lets learners actively participate in exercises and quizzes can be more effective than traditional classroom instruction.156 Employers can improve computer-based training by providing learners with regular prompts to set goals for learning, effective study strategies, and progress measurements toward the learning goals.157 Organizations are exploring delivering e-training through microlessons, on-the-spot tips, and learning games on mobile devices.158Evaluating EffectivenessThe effectiveness of a training program can refer to the level of trainee satisfaction, the amount trainees learn, the extent to which they transfer the learned material to their jobs, and/or the company’s financial return on investments in training.159 These results are not always related. Some people who have a positive experience in an upbeat, fun class learn very little; some who learn a great deal have difficulty figuring out how to use their knowledge at work; and changes in employee behavior are sometimes not large enough to justify the expense of training. This means rigorous measurement of multiple training outcomes should be part of every training effort.Is there general evidence related to training, development practices, and organizational performance? A variety of studies show that investments in on-the-job training lead to increases in productivity of significantly greater value than the cost of providing the training.160 Similarly, research indicated that crosscultural training was effective in raising performance when the training was done after the person was working in a new country but not when the training was conducted before departure to a new country.160 The climate for employee development has also been related to business unit performance.161 For example, one study of 260 companies found that training expenditures were positively related to corporate innovation.163 Overall, most studies have shown that investments in training can indeed have positive effects at the aggregate level.Performance ManagementPerformance management (also referred to as performance appraisal and performance evaluation) is more often than not something designed and executed poorly in organizations. Too often managers conduct an annual performance appraisal that terrifies employees, provides them with little to no actionable 17-5   List the methods of performance management.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 607 13/12/22 3:21 AM

608 PART 4    The Organization Systemfeedback, is informed by subjective impressions, and leaves everyone feeling tense, competitive, anxious, and worse off than if one was never conducted in the first place.164The Internet is riddled with performance appraisal horror stories. For instance, one employee had a complaint attached to their appraisal from a year ago. The problem is that this employee never heard the complaint and did not even know what it was about. After inquiring with the supervisor, the supervisor said they did not record what it was and not to put too much stock in it because no one cared about what the complainant had to say anyway. But still, the supervisor put it on the permanent record.165 As another example, many women report omnibus, sexist comments on their performance appraisals that have little to do with their job performance. For instance, one employee encountered comments like “somebody said they didn’t like your facial expression” and “you need to be more direct” (followed with a “you need to be less direct” once the employee actually made changes).166 Indeed, a large body of research suggests that prejudicial stereotypes filter into performance evaluations.167However, if done correctly, performance management can be a positive, developmental force in organizations. Performance management should be a continuous process where HR managers identify, measure, and develop both individual and team performance that is aligned with the strategic goals of the organization.168 In essence, performance management focuses on three primary areas (described in the introductory chapter): job performance, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), and counterproductive work behavior (CWB). Most managers believe that good performance means doing well on the first two dimensions and avoiding the third.169 A person who does core job tasks very well but is rude and aggressive toward coworkers is not going to be considered a good employee in most organizations, and the most pleasant and upbeat worker who cannot do the main job tasks well is not going to be a good employee either. In this section we show how the choice of a performance evaluation system and the way it is administered can influence employee behavior.Performance evaluation serves a number of purposes. One is to help management make general human resources decisions about promotions, transfers, and terminations. Evaluations also identify training and development needs. They pinpoint employee skills and competencies for which remedial programs can be developed. Finally, they provide feedback to employees on how the organization views their performance and are often the basis for reward allocations, including merit pay increases.What Do We Evaluate?The criteria that management chooses to evaluate has a major influence on what employees do. The three most popular sets of criteria are individual task outcomes, behaviors, and traits.Individual Task Outcomes Sometimes, management evaluates performance based on task outcomes, such as quantity produced, scrap generated, and cost per unit of production for a plant manager, or on overall sales volume in the territory, dollar increase in sales, and number of new accounts established for a salesperson. However, evaluating performance in this way can be incredibly unmotivating if there is a disconnect between employee behavior and task outcomes or if task outcomes are governed by forces in the context beyond the employees’ control.Recall expectancy theory from the chapter on motivation concepts—when there is a breakdown between effort and performance or between performance and outcomes, motivation can decrease. For instance, imagine if you worked as a salesperson M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 608 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 609for a company in Alaska that sold air-conditioning units. (In Anchorage, the average summer temperature ranges from 55 to 78 degrees Fahrenheit.)170 Many people in Alaska opt not to have air conditioners given the climate (although they probably have heating systems!). How would you feel if you were evaluated on how many airconditioning units you sold and not on your performance behaviors? Research suggests that the context an individual or team operates in has major implications for its performance and how it fares in performance management systems.171Behaviors It is difficult to attribute specific outcomes to the actions of employees in advisory or support positions whose work assignments are part of a group effort. We may readily evaluate the group’s performance but if it is hard to identify the contribution of each group member management will often evaluate the employee’s behavior. A manager might be evaluated on promptness in submitting monthly reports or leadership style and a salesperson on average number of contact calls made per day or helpfulness toward other sales representatives.Measured behaviors need not be limited to those directly related to individual productivity. Helping others, making suggestions for improvements, volunteering for extra duties, and other OCBs make work groups and organizations more effective and often are incorporated into evaluations of employee performance.Traits Having a good attitude, showing confidence, being dependable, staying busy, or possessing a wealth of experience can be desirable in the workplace, but it is important to remember that these traits may not be highly correlated with positive task outcomes. Moreover, some personality traits may actively distort or upwardly manage supervisors’ perceptions of the employee. For instance, supervisors often rate employees on how well they take personal initiative or have proactive personality traits. However, research demonstrates that politically skilled employees are better able to recognize and capitalize on opportunities to “showcase” their initiative to their evaluating supervisors.172 Worse yet, they may not take the initiative or engage in proactive behaviors when their supervisor is not watching. Unfortunately, we cannot ignore the reality that organizations still use such traits to assess job performance.Source: Bob Ebbesen/Alamy Stock PhotoBehaviors such as helping children, assisting coworkers, and building trusting relationships with parents are important elements in evaluating the performance of employees working at this child day care center. These subjective factors add to the center’s reputation as a high-quality, safe, and respectful organization.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 609 13/12/22 3:21 AM

610 PART 4    The Organization SystemWho Should Do the Evaluating?Who should evaluate an employee’s performance? By tradition, the task has fallen to managers because they are held responsible for their employees’ performance. But others may do the job better, particularly with the help of HR departments. With many of today’s organizations using self-managed teams, telecommuting, and other formats that distance bosses from employees, the immediate superior may not be the most reliable judge of an employee’s performance. Peers and even subordinates are being asked to take part in the process and employees are participating in their own evaluations. As you might expect, self-evaluations often suffer from overinflated assessment and self-serving bias and they seldom agree with supervisor’s ratings.173 They are probably better suited to developmental than evaluative purposes.In most situations, it is highly advisable to use multiple sources of ratings; any individual performance rating may say as much about the rater as about the person being evaluated. By averaging across raters, we can obtain a more reliable, unbiased, and accurate performance evaluation. Another popular approach to performance evaluation is the use of 360-degree evaluations.174 These provide performance feedback from the employee’s full circle of daily contacts, from subordinates to customers, to bosses, to peers (see Exhibit 17-2). The number of appraisals can be as few as three or four or as many as 25; most organizations collect five to ten per employee.What is the appeal of the 360-degree appraisal? By relying on feedback from people who know the employee well organizations hope to give everyone a sense of participation in the review process, increase employee accountability, and obtain more accurate readings on employee performance. Moreover, the context of each relationship matters for performance ratings—therefore, it is important to obtain ratings from multiple people who have worked with the target individual in a number of contexts and settings.175However, evidence on its effectiveness is mixed.176 The 360-degree evaluation provides employees with a wider perspective on their performance, but many organizations do not spend the time to train evaluators in giving constructive criticism. Some organizations allow employees to choose the peers and Exhibit 17-2 360-Degree EvaluationEmployeeCoworkers/PeersDepartmentMembersWorkgroupMembersDirectSupervisor(s)Team Members Clients/CustomersSubordinates SuppliersManagementM17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 610 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 611subordinates who evaluate them, which can artificially inflate positive feedback. There is a risk of giving too much weight to people who do not know much about the employee’s actual performance. It is also difficult to reconcile disagreements between rater groups. There is clear evidence that peers tend to give much more lenient ratings than supervisors or subordinates and also to make more errors in appraising performance. These evaluations may thus supplement an understanding of the consistency of an employee but should not supplant objective evaluations of performance.Methods of Performance EvaluationWe have discussed what we evaluate and who should do the evaluating. Now we ask: “How do we evaluate an employee’s performance? What are the specific techniques for evaluation?”Written Comments Probably the simplest method is to write a narrative describing an employee’s strengths, weaknesses, past performance, potential, and suggestions for improvement. The written comment requires no complex forms or extensive training to complete. But a written appraisal may be determined as much by the evaluator’s writing skill as by the employee’s actual level of performance. It is also difficult to compare comments for different employees (or for the same employees written by different managers) without a standardized scoring key. However, advancements in artificial intelligence and machine learning are enabling HR managers to score these written comments quickly, easily, and accurately.177Critical Incidents Critical incidents focus the evaluator’s attention on the difference between executing a job effectively and executing it ineffectively. The appraiser describes what the employee did that was especially effective or ineffective in a situation, citing only specific behaviors. A list of such critical incidents provide a rich set of examples to show the employee desirable behaviors that call for improvement. These critical incidents can thus serve as anchors defining what excellent performance and unsatisfactory performance looks like.Graphic Rating Scales One of the oldest and most popular methods of evaluation is the graphic rating scale. The evaluator goes through a set of performance factors—such as quantity and quality of work, depth of knowledge, cooperation, attendance, and initiative—and rates each on incremental scales. The scales may specify, say, five points, where job knowledge might be rated 1 (“is poorly informed about work duties”) to 5 (“has complete mastery of all phases of the job”). Although they do not provide the depth of information that comments or critical incidents do, graphic rating scales are less time consuming to develop and administer and they allow for quantitative analysis and comparison.Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS)combine major elements from the critical incident and graphic rating scale approaches. The appraiser rates employees on items along a continuum, but the items are examples of actual behavior on the job rather than general descriptions or traits. To develop the BARS, participants first contribute specific illustrations of effective and ineffective behavior, which are translated into a set of performance dimensions with varying levels of quality.Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM) Some organizations utilize electronic performance monitoring (EPM) to capture objective indicators of employees’ performance while on the job. This captures attentional metrics, such as critical incidents A way of evaluating an employee’s behaviors that are key in making the difference between executing a job effectively and executing it ineffectively.graphic rating scale An evaluation method in which the evaluator rates performance factors on an incremental scale.behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) Scales that combine major elements from the critical incident and graphic rating scale approaches. The appraiser rates employees based on items along a continuum, but the points are examples of actual behavior on the given job rather than general descriptions or traits.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 611 13/12/22 3:21 AM

612 PART 4    The Organization Systemhow long employees stay logged into collaboration programs (e.g., Microsoft Teams), how many reports they file, and whether they “cyberloaf” (e.g., visiting shopping websites rather than working). Although many organizations use EPM for performance appraisal, they also may use EPM to protect against legal liability (e.g., ensure safety), to provide developmental feedback on how to perform better, or, sometimes, without clear direction (e.g., for purely authoritarian purposes). In general, employees tend to react negatively to EPM, especially when it is real-time, not transparent (e.g., the employer is secretive), and invasive (e.g., collects too much data without reason).177Forced Comparisons Forced comparisons evaluate one individual’s performance against the performance of another or others. It is a relative rather than an absolute assessment. The two most popular comparisons are group order ranking and individual ranking.Group order ranking requires the evaluator to place employees into a particular classification such as the top one-fifth or the second one-fifth. If a rater has 20 employees, only four can be in the top fifth, so, of course, four must also be relegated to the bottom fifth. This method is often used in recommending students to graduate schools.The individual ranking approach rank-orders employees from best to worst. If the manager is required to appraise 30 employees, the difference between the first and second employee is assumed to be the same as that between the twenty-first and twenty-second. Some employees may be closely grouped, but no ties are permitted. The result is a clear ordering from the highest performer to the lowest.Not surprisingly, employees react negatively to relative performance evaluations. Employees consider performance management systems to be much fairer when they are relative to how they have performed in the past, rather than how they are performing relative to their peers.179 One company that has been known to use these types of relative methods is Amazon. Past managers at Amazon have described how they are directed to use group order ranking to determine how well their employees are faring across their entire team or division to determine HR systems and remedial plans (e.g., Amazon’s Focus initiative). Although some have described “hire to fire” practices, where managers hire people who they know they will eventually fire (by hiring people they know they would rank in the bottom portion of the distribution), Amazon representatives deny this claim. Regardless, the managers who have come forward about these ranking practices describe immense amounts of pressure surrounding the practices, and the decisions are not easy, especially when everyone is a top performer. As one former manager noted, “Whomever is the least best has to go . . . it’s like firing someone who got an A- when the rest of the class got A’s.”180Improving Performance EvaluationsThe performance evaluation process is a potential minefield. Evaluators can unconsciously inflate evaluations (positive leniency), understate performance (negative leniency), or allow the assessment of one characteristic to unduly influence the assessment of others (the halo error). Some appraisers bias their evaluations by unconsciously favoring people who have qualities and traits similar to their own (the similarity error). For example, introverts may rate extroverts lower on performance. And some evaluators see the evaluation process as a political opportunity to overtly reward or punish employees they like or dislike. One review on performance appraisals demonstrates that many managers deliberately distort performance ratings in order to maintain a positive forced comparison Method of performance evaluation where an employee’s performance is made in explicit comparison to others (e.g., an employee may rank third out of ten employees in their work unit).group order ranking An evaluation method that places employees into a particular classification such as quartiles.individual ranking An evaluation method that rank-orders employees from best to worst.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 612 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 613relationship with their subordinates or to achieve a positive image of themselves by showing that all their employees are performing well.181 Although no protections guarantee accurate performance evaluations, the following suggestions can make the process more objective and fairer.Use Multiple Evaluators As the number of evaluators increases, the probability of attaining more accurate information increases, as does the likelihood that the employee will accept the feedback as valid.182 We often see multiple evaluators in competitions in sports such as diving and gymnastics. A set of evaluators judges a performance, the highest and lowest scores are dropped, and the final evaluation is made up of those remaining. The logic of multiple evaluators applies to organizations as well. If an employee has ten supervisors, of whom nine rated them as excellent and one poor, we can safely discount the one poor evaluation. By moving employees within the organization to gain a number of evaluations, or by using multiple assessors (as in 360-degree appraisals), we increase the probability of achieving more valid and reliable evaluations.Evaluate Selectively To increase agreement among evaluations, appraisers should evaluate the areas of performance for which they have working knowledge.183 Appraisers should thus be as close as possible, in organizational level, to the individual being evaluated. The more levels that separate the evaluator from the employee, the less opportunity the evaluator has to observe the individual’s behavior and therefore the greater the possibility for inaccuracies. Moreover, some research suggests that some evaluators have more of a firsthand opportunity to observe performance than others, especially employees who occupy a core position in the individual’s social network rather than a peripheral one.184Train Evaluators If you cannot find good evaluators, make them. Training can produce more accurate raters.185 Most rater training courses emphasize changing the raters’ frame of reference by teaching them what to look for, so everyone in the organization defines good performance in the same way. Another effective training technique is to encourage raters to describe the employee’s behavior in as much detail as possible. Asking for more detail encourages raters to remember more about the employee’s performance rather than just acting on their feelings about the employee at the moment.Provide Employees with Due Process The concept of due process can be applied to appraisals to increase the perception that employees are being treated fairly.186Three features characterize due process systems: (1) Individuals are provided with adequate notice of what is expected of them, (2) all evidence relevant to a proposed violation is aired in a fair hearing so the individuals affected can respond, and (3) the final decision is based on the evidence and is free of bias. Research has demonstrated that employees who feel they are safe to contribute during a performance appraisal meeting and feel that their leader supports their contributions (and welcomes disagreements) leave the meetings feeling like it was a success.187One technique that organizations might consider enhancing due process is posting appraisals online so employees can see their own performance scores exactly as the supervisor enters them. One company that did so found employees believed rater accountability and employee participation were higher when appraisal information was available online prior to appraisal interviews.188 Maybe raters were more sensitive to providing accurate ratings when they knew employees would be able to see their own information directly.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 613 13/12/22 3:21 AM

614 PART 4 The Organization System An Ethical Choice Eliminating Bias from Performance Reviews Although performance evaluations may be described as impartial measures of employee performance, they are often far from objective. There are some startling disparities in performance evaluations that can be attributed to race and gender. For example, only 9.5 percent of employees from underrepresented ethnic groups received references to leadership in their performance evaluations—more than 70 percent less than those used in White women’s performance evaluations. This disparity is significant because the mention of leadership skills in performance evaluations usually predicts higher competency ratings the following year. More specifically, there are patterns of bias that have emerged over decades of research on performance evaluations. Employees from underrepresented groups tend to be judged based on their mistakes more frequently than their potential. Furthermore, they are more likely to have their personality traits mentioned in their evaluations (rather than what they actually did or did not do). The traits that are mentioned are more often negative than positive. The good news is that several interventions or so-called “bias interrupters” can be employed to effectively reduce bias in performance reviews. Two simple ones are outlined below: 1. Use an evaluation form that includes specific competencies on which the employee will be evaluated. The ratings for each of these should be supported by at least three pieces of evidence. Open-ended questions should be avoided if possible because without the structure of specific criteria, as many studies have shown, individuals are more likely to rely upon stereotypes when making decisions. 2. Develop a workshop to teach individuals how to effectively implement the form. As part of the workshop, elicit comments from the previous year’s evaluations and ask whether patterns of bias are represented in the comments. Although employers may intend to be as meritocratic as possible when utilizing performance evaluations, assessments are often not perfect and can be vulnerable to implicit biases. Thus, each year, thoroughly auditing performance reviews is necessary and can help organizations develop workplaces that are more equitable and inclusive. 189 Providing Performance Feedback Few activities are more unpleasant for many managers than providing performance feedback to employees. In fact, unless pressured by organizational policies and controls, managers are likely to ignore this responsibility. Why? First, even though almost every employee could stand to improve in some areas, managers fear confrontation when presenting negative feedback. Second, many employees do tend to become defensive when their weaknesses are pointed out. Instead of accepting the feedback as constructive and a basis for improving performance, some criticize the manager or redirect blame to someone else. As a side note, managers are not immune to this either— managers become cynical and defensive when presented with multi-source feedback in their own performance appraisals and are more likely to leave as a result (especially when under pressure and with few resources). 190 Third, managers tend to have inflated perceptions of how employees perceive their feedback as well as the accuracy of their own feedback, and therefore deliver feedback ineffectively. Managers should not make assumptions regarding how employees feel or may interpret the feedback. 191 Finally, employees tend to have an inflated assessment of their own performance. But the average employee’s estimate of their own performance level is generally much higher than it is in reality. The solution to the problem is not to ignore it but to train managers to conduct constructive feedback sessions. An effective review—in which the employee perceives the appraisal as fair, the manager as sincere and empathetic, and the climate as constructive—can leave the employee feeling upbeat, informed about areas needing improvement, and determined to correct them. 192 This is a perfect outcome if the evaluation is fair and thorough, but unfortunately an M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 614 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices CHAPTER ­1 615employee may feel this way in situations where the evaluator feels an interdependence with the employee and therefore is more lenient in the evaluation. 193 It probably would not surprise you that employees in a bad mood are much less likely to take advice than employees in a good mood. 194 Appraisals should also be as specific as possible. People are most likely to overrate their own performance when asked about overall job performance, but they can be more objective when feedback is about a specific area. 195 It is also hard to figure out how to improve your performance globally—it is much easier to improve in specific areas. The performance review should be a counseling activity more than a judgment process, best accomplished by allowing it to evolve from the employee’s self-evaluation. Myth or Science? The 24-Hour Workplace Is Harmful T his statement appears to be true in many cases. Although technology makes it possible for employees to be plugged in all the time, in constant contact around the globe, research suggests that employers who push employees to check in at all hours and stay connected may well be doing themselves (and their employees) a disservice. A growing body of research has uncovered serious health consequences of insufficient sleep, and work practices that encourage employees to be plugged in 24 hours a day may be making the situation worse. One study examined how late-night work influenced job outcomes by having employees complete diary surveys on their sleep and engagement at work over multiple days. Those who used smartphones at night for work were less engaged in their work tasks the next day, even after accounting for other technology use. From another angle, researchers have looked at the personal consequences of workaholism, which is the tendency to think constantly about work off the job and to feel compelled to work excessive hours. This habit is associated with higher levels of burnout, stress, and family problems. While workaholism is partially driven by personality factors, surveys suggest that features of the workplace itself can enhance workaholic tendencies, including excessive workloads, conflicting work priorities, and time pressures. Workaholics may not immediately perceive these effects because they are often highly committed to their work and enjoy it in the short term, until burnout occurs. The key to maintaining performance over time may lie in developing psychological detachment from work. Alongside studies showing the negative effects of overexposure to work demands we can place another body of work showing that short regular breaks made up of total rest and avoidance of work responsibilities can recharge a person’s energy. Unplugging from constant work demands for short periods actually makes us much more productive over the long haul. Therefore, the evidence is clear: Unplug to recharge yourself. HR can support this effort by presenting the research findings to managers and helping to establish practices and boundaries that benefit everyone. 196 Accessible Workplaces Workplace policies, both official and circumstantial, regarding individuals with physical or mental disabilities vary from country to country but matter for all HR processes, including recruitment, selection, training, and performance management. 197 Countries such as Canada, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Syria, and Mali have specific laws to protect individuals with disabilities. 198 These laws have resulted in greater acceptance and accommodation of people with physical or mental disabilities. In the United States, for instance, the representation of individuals with disabilities in the workforce rapidly increased with the passage of the ADA in 1990. 199 According to the ADA, employers are required to make reasonable accommodations so their workplaces will be accessible to individuals with physical or mental disabilities. 200 Examples of recognized disabilities include 17- 6 Discuss how reasonable accommodations make accessible workplaces. M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 615 13/12/22 3:21 AM

616 PART 4    The Organization Systemmissing limbs, seizure disorder, Down syndrome, deafness, schizophrenia, alcoholism, diabetes, depression, and chronic back pain. These conditions share almost no common features, so there is no specific definition about how each condition is related to employment.Accommodations for Physical DisabilitiesThe EEOC classifies a person as having a disability who has any physical or mental disability that substantially limits one or more major life activities. The impact of disabilities on employment outcomes has been explored from a variety of perspectives. On one hand, when disability status is randomly manipulated among hypothetical candidates, individuals with a disability are rated as having superior personal qualities like dependability.201 Another review suggested that workers with disabilities receive higher performance evaluations. However, individuals with disabilities tend to encounter lower performance expectations and are less likely to be hired.202Discrimination against the workforce of those individuals with disabilities has long been problematic (see the chapter on diversity, equity, and inclusion in organizations for an in-depth discussion on discrimination and prejudice).203 In Europe, for instance, policies to motivate employers have often failed to boost the workforce participation rate for workers with disabilities, and outright quota systems in Germany, France, and Poland have backfired.204 However, the recognition of the talents and abilities of individuals with disabilities has made a positive impact. In addition, technology and workplace advancements have greatly increased the scope of available jobs for those with all types of disabilities.Managers need to be attuned to the true requirements of each job and match the skills of the individual to them, providing accommodations when needed. And the accommodation process should not be a merely transactional determination—research from nearly twenty thousand German federal employees found that supervisors and subordinates with physical disabilities can work together to establish accommodations that work for everyone involved (and reduce the likelihood of turnover among employees).205Accommodations for Hidden DisabilitiesAs we mentioned earlier, disabilities include observable characteristics like missing limbs, illnesses that require a person to use a wheelchair, and blindness. Other disabilities may not be directly observable. Unless an individual decides to disclose a disability that is not easily observable, it can remain hidden at the discretion of the employee. These are called hidden disabilities (or invisible disabilities). Hidden disabilities generally fall under the categories of sensory disabilities (for example, being hard of hearing), autoimmune disorders (like rheumatoid arthritis), chronic illness or pain (like carpal tunnel syndrome), cognitive or learning disabilities (like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]), sleep disorders (like insomnia), and psychological challenges (like PTSD).205 Mental disabilities may affect performance more than physical disabilities: Individuals with common mental health issues such as depression and anxiety are significantly more likely to be absent from work.207As a result of changes to the Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act (ADAAA) of 2008, U.S. organizations must accommodate employees with a broad range of disabilities. However, employees must disclose their conditions to their employers in order to be eligible for workplace accommodations and employment protection. Many employees do not want to disclose their invisible disabilities, so they are prevented from getting the workplace accommodations they need in order to thrive in their jobs. Research indicates that individuals with hidden disabilities are afraid of being stigmatized or ostracized if they M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 616 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 617disclose their disabilities to others in the workplace, and they believe that their managers will think they are less capable of strong job performance.208 Add this to the challenge of receiving a diagnosis for a condition that one did not previously have, and these fears are compounded even more so than if the diagnosis was made for employees when they were younger.209In some ways, a hidden disability is not truly invisible. For example, a person with an undisclosed diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) will still exhibit the behaviors characteristic of the condition, such as difficulty with verbal communication and lack of adaptability.210 You may observe behaviors that lead you to suspect an individual has a hidden disability. Unfortunately, you may attribute the behavior to other causes—for instance, you may incorrectly ascribe the slow, slurred speech of a coworker to an alcohol dependency rather than to the longterm effects of a stroke.As for the employee, research suggests that disclosure generally helps all—the individual, others, and organizations. Disclosure may increase the job satisfaction and well-being of the individual, help others understand and assist the individual to succeed in the workplace, and allow the organization to accommodate the situation so that the employee and the organization achieve top performance.211 Moreover, following disclosure, managers and employees alike should put in the work to learn more about the physical or mental disability (so they do not make unfounded assumptions)212 and do what they can to develop an environment that is accommodating, inclusive, and equitable.213Human Resources (HR) LeadershipWe have discussed the important functions HR departments serve in recruitment, selection, training and development, performance management, and accommodations for disability. Arguably, these are an organization’s most important tasks in managing its most valuable asset—its people. However, HR also plays a key leadership role in nearly all aspects of the workplace environment. HR is active in designing and administering benefits programs, to conducting attitude surveys, to drafting and enforcing employment policies. HR is on the frontlines in managing adversarial employment conditions such as work–life conflicts, mediations, terminations, and layoffs. It is on the scene when an employee joins and leaves and all along the way. HR departments uniquely represent both the employees’ and the company’s perspectives as needed, so we will discuss the importance of HR communication before each of the facets of HR leadership.Companies have only recently begun to recognize the potential for HR to influence employee performance. Researchers have been examining the effects of a high-performance work system (HPWS), a group of human resources practices that some organizations have been implementing.214 These practices work together and reinforce one another to accomplish the organization’s strategy and improve organizational outcomes over time.215 HPWS may increase organizational performance, but higher organizational performance may also reinforce high-performance practices by providing more resources to an HPWS. HPWS may also have more of an effect on organizational performance when leadership is not oriented toward organizational goals (e.g., improving customer service).216 HPWS practices can include those that enhance motivation, such as profit sharing programs and other reward systems, as well as practices that improve skills, such as training and development programs.217Creativity-oriented HPWS inspire employees to come up with innovative solutions that meet diverse customer needs.217 Lastly, empowerment-oriented HPWS empower employees to speak up and autonomously take charge of their work, leading to improved job performance.21917-7   Describe the leadership role of human resources (HR) in organizations.high-performance work system (HPWS)A group of human resources practices that work together and reinforce one another to improve organizational outcomes.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 617 13/12/22 3:21 AM

618 PART 4 The Organization System Toward a Better World Kawasaki: Learning from Each Other at Takumi Juku and Manabiya Kawasaki Heavy Industries is a major public manufacturer of heavy equipment (e.g., robots, gas turbines, boilers), vehicles, and ships. Headquartered in Kobe, Japan, Kawasaki is one of the major Japanese manufacturing companies, alongside Mitsubishi. Throughout the last decade, Kawasaki has endeavored to make the environment, sustainability, and governance (ESG) a core part of its strategy. Moreover, it has sought to align its HR strategies and operations with its ESG goals and with its corporate mission to build a sustainability-focused high-performance work system (HPWS). One of Kawasaki’s key ESG values is “support for the next generation,” and Kawasaki realizes this value through many HR programs. How does Kawasaki foster this sense of shared mission and goals within an HR system? First, Kawasaki has implemented the Gyomu Mokuhya Kyoyuka (“Sharing Business Targets”) program, intended to create bi-annual supervisor–subordinate meetings to track performance, identity training and growth needs, and foster a shared acceptance of goals. For technical specialists, this also involves improving front-line production skills through an apprenticeship program that pairs “grand master” specialists (who have been credentialed as extremely skilled in their trade) with newer employees. Second, Kawasaki holds an annual technical skills contest for younger employees to demonstrate the talents they learned at their worksites. These newer employees from Japan and other countries worldwide gather at the Akashi Works, a major manufacturing plant, to take part in these contests to develop their skills and learn from one another. Finally, Kawasaki has opened to corporate campuses for technicians to pass down their skills and learn collaboratively. The Takumi Juki at the Harima Works plant, as well as the Manabiya at the Akashi Works plant, create formal centers for employees to learn from one another. Kawasaki’s reach to create a collaborative culture that learns from one another does not stop there. Apart from facilitating training and skill transfer amongst its employees, it also develops knowledge, skills, and engagement among young people worldwide. First, Kawasaki has created a corporate museum to teach young people and other community members about technology and craftsmanship. This museum, or Kawasaki Good Times World, sees nearly two hundred thousand visitors annually and provides people with an opportunity to interact with and learn about how motorcycles, robots, and other machines across land, sea, and air are made. Second, Kawasaki hosts Handicraft and Experiment Courses for children to learn how to make their own technology-oriented products. Employees from every business unit develop and deliver these training programs to children from the community, who have an opportunity to actively participate in building toy helicopters, cranes, motorcycles, trains, ships, and even toy jet engines and power plants. The Handicraft and Experiment Courses program has won several awards at the Education Support Project Grand Prix. Finally, the Akashi Works and Manabiya campus are strategically located next to Hanazono Kindergarten, Kisaki Elementary School, and Bokai Junior High School. Every year, parents and students from these schools are invited to take field trips to the Akashi Works to tour the facilities, learn about the manufacturing process, and have lunch with Kawasaki employees. Why should organizations like Kawasaki seek to involve HR in the pursuit of ESG goals? Research by Marsh & McLennan concludes that ESG has a major impact on workforce sentiment (which can be a competitive advantage). It is becoming increasingly important to the recruitment, selection, and retention of employees. Moreover, a survey of 170 board directors worldwide conducted by Willis Towers Watson suggests that performance management systems should play a role in meeting ESG goals, aligning them with performance evaluation and incentives. HR and leadership have a way of “supercharging” ESG efforts. With executive support and communication of ESG goals and policies all employees can become involved and educated about the company’s ESG effort. Kawasaki’s ESG initiatives may be playing a role here, as it boasts a less than 2 percent annual turnover rate with over two-thirds of the workforce expressing interest in continued employment with Kawasaki. 220 Communicating HR Practices Leadership by HR begins with informing employees about HR practices and explaining the implications of decisions that might be made around these practices. It is not enough simply to have a practice in place; HR needs to let employees know about it. When a company successfully communicates how the whole M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 618 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 619system of HR practices has been developed and what function this system serves, employees feel they can control and manage what they get out of work.221 We have noted in other chapters that knowing you can influence the outcomes of your work is highly motivational. Employees can come to see the HR philosophy and system as an employer’s expression of concern, and the positive feelings that result have been shown to not only affect the adoption of the HPWS by employees222 but also increase employee commitment, retention, and engagement.219The evidence supporting the contribution of communication and perception to HR effectiveness is considerable (with some research suggesting leadership is the most valuable component).224 For example, one study of different business units within a large food-service organization found that employee perceptions of HR practices, rated at the work-group level, were significant predictors of OCB, commitment, and intention to remain with the company,225 but the HR practices led to these positive outcomes only if employees were aware they were in place. Other studies have found that HR practices have different effects depending on how employees perceive the reason for them.226 Employees who think HR practices are established to improve performance and benefit workers reciprocate with greater commitment and performance. Employees who think these same practices are established to exploit workers do not have the same positive reactions.The effectiveness of HR practices also depends on employee attitudes. One review found that HR practices were more likely to lead to positive outcomes when employees felt motivated.227 Other research indicated that employees who were more knowledgeable about the purpose of a performance management system used the system more effectively to improve their efficiency and thoroughness.228 Taken together, these results suggest that it is not enough for employers simply to set up practices—they need to show that the practices are actually attempts to make the company more successful and help employees achieve better outcomes. Leadership communication can help shape employee attitudes and perceptions about HR practices.Drafting and Enforcing Employment PoliciesAlong with benefits come responsibilities and employees need to know what the organization expects from them. Employment policies that are informed by current laws but go beyond minimum requirements will help define a positive organizational culture and climates (see the chapter on culture and change). Policies differ from benefits (see the chapter on motivation application) in that they provide the guidelines for behavior, not just the working conditions. A company might provide the benefit of a special break room for mothers of young children, but a policy is needed to outline the expectation for conduct. May mothers elect to feed their babies in other places in the facility or only in the break room? What timing is acceptable? Where can collected breast milk be stored? Establishing policies to address potential questions can help minimize confusion for all employees. The lactation case is an example of a potential benefit and policy combination that will ensure employees recognize the benefit as an employer’s aid to their well-being while understanding how and where to use it. However, any policy must have enforcement to be effective. HR managers are responsible for setting the organizational consequences of infractions and often for enforcing policies as well.Sometimes, HR managers need to act even when the employee’s direct manager may not agree, especially if compliance with the law is at issue. For example, many companies in the entertainment, nonprofit, publishing, and marketing industries use unpaid post-college interns, who are supposed to receive on-thejob experience as compensation. The Labor Department stipulates that interns M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 619 13/12/22 3:21 AM

620 PART 4    The Organization Systemwho are unpaid must be provided a vocational education experience and that their work cannot profit the employer. Interns report getting stuck doing menial tasks an employer would need to pay someone else to do. If these companies want to continue using unpaid interns, HR managers need to set policies that clarify the assignments the supervisors can give and then ensure that the policies are followed. Otherwise, their organizations will face lawsuits like the one from Eric Glatt, an intern on the movie Black Swan, who sued for minimum wage violations. A judge in the U.S. District Court ruled that he was improperly cataloged as an intern. The decision cited criteria from the Labor Department wherein an unpaid internship must provide work similar to training the person would receive in a school, benefit the intern not the employer, and not displace other employees. This ruling sparked similar claims against NBC Universal, Fox, Viacom, and other large organizations, often ending in out-of-court settlements. The issue is far from conclusive, however, leaving the burden on interns to litigate if they are unfairly treated.In conclusion, the role of leadership in HR is imperative to create positive cultures and climates that meet organizational objectives, realize desired business outcomes, and remain competitive in the marketplace as high-performing work systems.SummaryAn organization’s HR systems and practices create important forces that greatly influence OB and important work outcomes. HR departments have become increasingly integral in shaping the composition of the organization’s workforce. First, HR departments have taken the lead in establishing an online presence to attract job seekers to learn about their organization to further their recruitment efforts, build relationships with job seekers through recruiters, and provide a window into a day in the life of employees through realistic job previews. Second, HR departments are involved in all phases of selection: initial selection, substantive selection, and contingent selection, with the ultimate goal of hiring the best candidates who contribute to the organization’s human capital resources and who are poised to advance the mission and objectives of the organization. In effective organizations HR remains actively involved throughout an employee’s time with the organization. HR departments create and administer training and development programs. In many companies, HR provides continuous, active learning opportunities for their employees to stay engaged and grow as members of the organization. They also set policies and practices that govern the performance evaluation system. Although many companies have not fully mastered performance management yet, it can be a great HR tool if implemented frequently and with the goal of being developmental, not punitive. Finally, HR is an important function for building diverse and inclusive workplaces, especially for employees with physical and mental disabilities. HR works with employees to establish reasonable accommodations to build inclusive and accommodating workplaces. Overall, HR serves in a leadership capacity with responsibilities that include drafting, communicating, and enforcing employment policies and practices regularly. HR should bring awareness of ethical issues to all stages of an individual’s experience with the organization. Therefore, knowledgeable HR professionals are a great resource to all levels of the organization, from top management to employees.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 620 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 621Implications for Managers● Managers should increase applicant attraction by managing their impressions with potential job seekers. To do so, recruiters should be trained to build positive relationships with job seekers; the recruitment and selection systems should be fair, just, and clear; and the company brand should communicate its core values and safeguard its reputation.● Although referral hiring is an extremely common practice, there is mixed evidence for whether it is effective. In some ways, it can enrich workplace relationships—in other ways, job seekers and current employees may see the practice as unfair.● Realistic job previews are one way to manage job seekers and applicant expectations of what it is like to work at a company. The realistic job preview is becoming increasingly accessible to managers. Many companies post realistic job preview videos, simulations, and games on their websites.● The hiring process is extremely complex, and managers should carefully consider the methods they use in initial, substantive, and contingent selection. Above all, managers should make sure that each piece of the selection puzzle positively contributes to the decision, does not introduce bias, complies with laws and regulations, and does not treat people from underrepresented groups unfairly. Moreover, some of the most common methods (e.g., unstructured interviews, applications, cover letters) are the least informative.● Managers should build systems that keep track of training needs and skills gaps, design (online and in-person) programs that meet these needs, and continuously evaluate their effectiveness. Formal and informal training have their place, and managers should take a three-pronged approach that focuses on building structure, fostering trainee engagement, and nurturing positive learning interactions between people.● Performance management is done poorly more often than not. Managers should consider ditching the traditional approach of annual performance appraisals for termination, promotion, and pay increase decisions. Instead, managers could develop performance management systems that are conducted continuously, focus on concrete behaviors, obtain feedback from multiple trained employees well acquainted with the target individual, and serve developmental purposes (e.g., providing feedback that identifies professional growth and development gaps).● Managers are required to provide reasonable accommodation for disclosed, recognized disabilities under the ADA. Beyond this, however, managers should actively work with employees with disabilities to consider their needs, learn more about their disabilities so that they can better understand their situations, and foster an inclusive and accommodating environment.● Leadership plays a critical role in establishing, communicating, and enforcing high-performance work practices. With executive and manager support and championing, many organizational initiatives could fall flat.M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 621 13/12/22 3:21 AM

622 PART 4 The Organization System Employers Should Check Applicants’ Criminal Backgrounds POINT Depending on where you live, you may have been asked about your criminal arrest record on a job application. Even if you were not asked outright, the company might have investigated anyway using a background check service. Surveys suggest that nearly 70 percent of companies do some sort of criminal background check on job applicants. When so many are using the same basic strategy, they likely have a good reason. Companies check criminal records for many purposes. Some managers believe that prior criminal behavior may be an indicator of future criminal behavior. Many employees have used the access and privileges of their jobs to commit crimes, ranging from theft to assault or even murder. A check of their criminal records may help screen out these individuals. As Lucia Bone, founder of the nonprofit Sue Weaver Cause, says, “It is the employer’s responsibility to protect . . . their business, their employees, and their customers.” This is a deeply meaningful issue for Bone. She founded the organization and named it after her sister, Sue Weaver, murdered by a man with a criminal record who had access to her home to clean air ducts. Many hiring managers check criminal backgrounds specifically because they do not want their own lack of diligence to lead to similarly tragic outcomes. Besides signaling an immediate risk of criminal activity on the job, criminal records may be good behavioral indicators of other deviant workplace behavior. People who are willing to violate social conventions in one area may likely violate them in others. When employers screen for the use of illegal drugs or shoplifting arrests, they are trying to identify people who might lie to supervisors or embezzle money. Information gathered from criminal records is likely to be more objective and accurate than a manager’s gut feelings about who will pose a problem in the future. COUNTERPOINT According to sociologist Devah Pager, the high U.S. incarceration rate means employers’ hiring decisions have major labor market and social implications if based on criminal records. Koch Industries has stopped asking applicants about criminal records. CEO Charles Koch notes, “If ex-offenders can’t get a job, education, or housing, how can we possibly expect them to have a productive life?” Koch’s concern is valid. One study linked a young-adult arrest record to lower incomes and education levels later in life and a conviction record to lower levels. There are also substantial racial and ethnic group differences in arrest rates. Men are much more likely to have arrest and conviction records than women. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) concludes that excluding individuals with criminal records from jobs effectively discriminates against Black men in particular. Criminal background checks do not necessarily give employers the information they seek. A core principle of modern criminal justice holds that we all are innocent until proven guilty. However, some screens will turn up both conviction and arrest records. This is problematic because fewer than half of arrests end in conviction. While the use of arrest records is prohibited in many localities, that is far from a universal rule. Other investigations have found that online criminal records checks are prone to false positives, reporting that someone has a criminal past when they do not. Another problem is the lack of relevance. While many would agree that a person convicted of assault is not a good candidate for work that requires carrying a weapon or associating with vulnerable populations, it is less clear how a petty-theft conviction might raise the same concerns. Sociologist Christopher Uggen summarizes by observing, “We haven’t really figured out what a disqualifying offense should be for particular activities.” 229 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 17- 1 What is the value of recruitment methods? 17- 2 What are the methods of initial selection? 17- 3 What are the most useful methods of substantive selection? 17- 4 What are the similarities and differences among the main types of training? 17- 5 What are the methods of performance management? 17- 6 How does reasonable accommodation make a more accessible workplace? 17- 7 What role does leadership play to HR in organizations? M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 622 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 623APPLICATION AND EMPLOYABILITYHR policies and practices have a tremendous influence on the success of an organization. Recruitment and selection enable organizations to increase their human capital resources. Training can also strengthen the abilities and skills of employees that drive organizational performance. HR practices and policies also determine how performance is measured, the inclusiveness and accessibility of the workplace, and other factors that influence many important organizational outcomes. In this chapter, you helped develop many skills that are useful in the workplace. You developed your critical thinking and creativity, social responsibility, leadership, and career management skills by uncovering the role high-performance demands play in crafting harmful “24-hour” workplaces, determining how to remove bias from performance reviews, debating whether employers should conduct criminal background checks, and discovering how Kawasaki meets its sustainability goal of “supporting the next generation,” both internally and externally. In the next section, you will continue to build these skills by designing an assessment center exercise, deciding whether to hire a friend, and facing the travesty of human trafficking in the United States.EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE Designing a Virtual Assessment Center ExerciseIn this exercise, you will focus on creating a performancesimulation test for selecting a new head of character design at a digital animation studio. The position is completely virtual. Candidates are being assessed worldwide. To assess candidates from so many varied geographical areas, the hiring manager wants to use an assessment center to select the new employee. As you learned in the chapter, assessment center exercises are meant to simulate problems that employees may encounter on the job. Because assessment centers are conducted offsite, employers can create virtual assessment centers that candidates can take part in on their computers. For example, candidates for a management position may be asked to sign into a website to access a virtual e-mail inbox. Responses sent through this virtual inbox can then assess how a candidate responds to e-mails or memos over a set time period.A couple of details are unique about the position. Unlike many other positions that may be selected using assessment centers, the head of character design should be very creative, technically proficient, and artistic. A competitive candidate should be a great artist but also good at managing other artists. More typical assessment center exercises would not be suitable for this position.Step 1: Form groups of two or three people each. To start the exercise, consider the common tasks someone in this position would encounter. What would managing other artists entail? It may be helpful to look up job descriptions for creative directors, head animators, and character designers at large firms like Pixar and DreamWorks. List five to ten essential tasks for someone in this position.Step 2: Next, pick a task that can be simulated in a virtual assessment center. As a group, write a brief description of the task. Make sure to consider the following: the objective of the task, what instructions the candidates would receive, and how much time the candidates would have to complete the task.Step 3: When you have created your assessment center exercise, consider how to score applicants’ work. First, to create a good rubric for scoring, decide what results would reflect good or poor performance. Next, decide what traits would be needed to be successful during this exercise. Each trait should be measured by something that can be seen while the person is completing the task or accessing the task results. Create a rating scale to assess candidates on your assessment center exercise.After all the groups have designed the assessment center exercise and rating scale, as a class, discuss what each group did.Questions17-8. What were some of the challenges of creating an assessment center exercise for this type of position?17-9. How did you determine the core tasks that would be needed for this type of position?M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 623 13/12/22 3:21 AM

624 PART 4    The Organization System17-10. Could you use the assessment center model to determine if a candidate had all the traits needed to complete the job?17-11. Was it easy to create a task that could be used in a virtual rather than in-person assessment center? Would using another means of selecting candidates (structured interview, work sample) be easier?ETHICAL DILEMMA Should I Pay the Staff More and Reduce the Company’s Profit?Ryanair has radically changed the travel habits of European citizens over the last decade, with 131 million customers in 2017 alone. Popular among millennials especially for its cheap fares, Ryanair faced an unexpected crisis in the fall of 2017 with more than 20,000 cancelled flights and 700,000 passengers who had to be refunded or diverted to other flights. The problem was due to a staffing crisis, with a high number of pilots deciding to quit the company after having been offered higher compensation and better working conditions by Ryanair’s competitors. In an extreme attempt to remedy the pilot roster crisis, CEO Michael O’Leary wrote a letter promising a loyalty bonus to those pilots who would remain with the company and agree to fly additional hours during their time off. The letter was an attempt to show more gratitude to pilots and give an indirectly reply to unions that, in the months leading up to the crisis, had denounced Ryanair’s employment model, which was characterized by a systematic use of external contractors and self-employed pilots who are hired through external agencies. These pilots do not receive compensation for non-flight hours and are not entitled to vacation, sickness, or paid leave.Regardless of the specific circumstances of Ryanair’s case, this story brings to light a highly debated question in human resource management. Should the workforce be paid more at expense of company’s profit? Should personnel be treated in a better fashion with greater provision of benefits programs? Many would likely say yes, but the answer to this question is not as straightforward as it seems. Many employers would like to pay their staff more and promote them more often, but there are several constraints, including global competition and customers who might not be keen to pay more for products or services whose prices are justified by better employment conditions. Yet, as the case demonstrates, there are some drawbacks to failing to treat well those who could cause severe damage to the company’s reputation and regular functioning.230Questions17-12. How might Ryanair’s CEO convince pilots to remain loyal to the company? Would monetary incentives be sufficient?17-13. Is it appropriate to write pilots a letter to promise a bonus for accepting to fly more hours during time off? What could Ryanair do differently to better communicate their HR practices?17-14. Does more sustainable management of the workforce impose costs or generate benefits for companies? CASE INCIDENT Fired via Video MessageHow would you feel if you were fired from your job without any warning and via a 3-minute pre-recorded Zoom video? This is what 800 employees of P&O Ferries, one of the largest British shipping companies, experienced in Spring 2022. P&O Ferries operates ferries from the United Kingdom to Continental Europe and Ireland and is owned by a Dubai-based logistics company. Like so many other companies in the transportation sector, P&O Ferries was hit hard by the COVID-19 crisis and lost millions of pounds. The decision to lay off 800 seafarers was claimed as a necessary part of the CEO’s attempt to restructure its operations and the only way to save the business from going under.However, the company’s drastic decision came as a complete surprise to its employees, as the company had not gone through the due process of consulting them or the worker’s union before carrying out the mass job cuts, as is required by the UK law. Employment laws vary in different countries; for example, in the United States, law consultation and notice rights are somewhat limited, while in countries like India and Japan, neither collective nor individual consultation is required. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, a company’s HR department should be aware that such a process is mandated by the UK employment law. If the due process is not followed, such decisions can be challenged by the employment tribunal. The CEO’s failure to take HR input in this decision meant that the company would later be found in breach of the law. M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 624 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Human Resource Systems and Practices    CHAPTER ­1 625Furthermore, the very way in which redundancy decisions were communicated to the employees lacked proper processes and procedures. The 3-minute prerecorded Zoom video meeting took place at the end of the day, without any warning. The call simply informed seafarers that their job no longer existed, and following the announcement, they were escorted off the vessels in which they worked. Most employees were left in a state of shock and devastation—many of them had worked for the company for a number of years and had demonstrated loyalty and hard work throughout the pandemic. What made the situation more controversial was that P&O Ferries was not merely downsizing but was engaging in a form of “fire and rehire,” as it later became clear that the sacked workers were being replaced with cheaper agency staff. Fire and rehire is a practice whereby a firm dismisses an employee only to rehire them or get another candidate for the same job under different, typically less favorable conditions, such as lower pay. The practice is not illegal in the United Kingdom, but it does raise a lot of ethical, reputational, and even safety concerns. In this case, rather than hire new staff directly onto their payroll, P&O Ferries decided to hire agency workers. It later transpired that these workers were Indian and paid significantly below the UK minimum hourly wage by the agency. P&O Ferries’ behavior caused significant outrage and condemnation by workers’ unions as well as the broader media and public. A UK Parliament select committee inquiry was initiated to investigate the matter, and criminal and civil investigations into the circumstances around the redundancies were launched. The RMT, the worker’s union to which the sacked seafarers belonged, also called for economic sanctions against the company, but it soon became clear that the company was in trouble, but for a different reason: their ships were grounded for six weeks due to the agency crew’s lack of familiarity with the proper safety procedures and other operational procedures. But the reputational damage is even more significant; several months after the scandal, it was revealed that P&O had suffered a colossal 92 percent slump in private customer transfers and an 87.7 percent decline in freight volume as businesses chose not to use the company’s services. While tough choices sometimes need to be made to keep a business viable, this case shows the consequences of poor workforce management decisions.231Questions17-15. Identify the instances in this case where management should have properly consulted and followed the advice of their HR department.17-16. The company decided to replace the sacked seafarers with agency staff from a different country on lower wages. Compared to the in-house recruitment and selection processes, what potential issues do you think this way of recruiting staff may cause?17-17. What do you think may be the consequences of such poorly handled HR issues for the company?M17_ROBB0025_19_GE_C17.indd 625 13/12/22 3:21 AM

Stress and Health 18 in Organizations 18- 1 Describe how the stress process unfolds in the workplace. 18- 2 Discuss how sleep, illness, and injury affect physical health at work. 18- 3 Recognize how maladaptive mental health conditions can manifest as a consequence of stressors at work. 18- 4 Compare the four major stress and health theories. 18- 5 Differentiate between work–life conflict and work–life enrichment. 18- 6 Describe individual and organizational approaches to managing stress at work. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Source: Maridav/Shutterstock 626M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 626 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations CHAPTER ­1 627Myth or Science?An Ethical ChoicePoint/CounterpointToward a Better WorldExperiential ExerciseEthical DilemmaCase IncidentCritical Thinking & Creativity ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓Communication ✓Collaboration ✓ ✓ ✓Self-Management ✓ ✓ ✓Social Responsibility ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓Leadership ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓Career Management ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Employability Skills Matrix (ESM) BEATING BURNOUT Crisis almost always creates stress. This was certainly true as the COVID-19 pandemic began to spread around the world. As was the case in many hospitals, the Department of Emergency Medicine at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) in Boston was faced with the task of caring for patients who were infected with a deadly, highly contagious, and not well-understood disease. However, even in this extreme situation, the leaders at MGH were able to employ strategies that helped minimize burnout and, in some cases, even increased physician job satisfaction. Physicians at this hospital recognized the importance of the institution’s capable leadership, effective communication, and ability to obtain necessary resources that were in short supply. Although solving the problem of burnout is complex, the strategies utilized by the leadership at MGH align with the factors that psychologists have found to increase employee engagement and reduce burnout. To begin with, while financial rewards can play a role in reducing burnout, the hospital primarily focused on emotional rewards by ensuring that employees knew everyone’s work was appreciated and valued. For example, it collected and shared feedback from appreciative patients with employees who likely would not have otherwise received this feedback. Although physical distancing rules made it somewhat challenging, the hospital facilitated more interaction between patients and physicians. A video conferencing system was utilized when family members could not be at the hospital but could still communicate with staff. When physicians were able to have meaningful interactions with patients and their families, they reported improved well-being. M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 627 13/12/22 3:25 AM

628 PART 4    The Organization SystemDuring a time of uncertainty, hospital leaders focused on reassuring employees through transparent communication. Although they often had to communicate difficult information and frequently did not have all the answers, they sent e-mail updates almost every day to the entire staff that included information about how the leadership team handled the challenging choices it had to make. Many staff members were extremely busy, though, so keeping up with all the changes via e-mail could be overwhelming. As a result, the leadership team began doing “rounds” twice a day to check in with frontline doctors and nurses to address immediate concerns as well as discuss the ever-changing protocols.Perhaps one of the most challenging tasks during this time was to ensure that employees’ workloads were reasonable. The hospital decided to increase the number of physicians in its critical care pod to have fewer total patients and put more effort into caring for each one. Though this strategy may not seem to make sense financially, the leadership understood that patient interactions were now more time-consuming and more emotionally draining. Long-term, this was an effective decision as staff could mentally recharge and ultimately be more effective at their jobs.Finally, maintaining a sense of community was crucial. Initiatives were implemented to help teams feel more connected, including virtual “wellness sessions.” During this time, staff could openly discuss any issues they were experiencing. The hospital surveyed staff and found that two-thirds of those surveyed reported a greater sense of unity and purpose than they had before the pandemic. While the actions taken to prevent burnout will look different depending on the industry, the principle that translates across settings is empowering individuals to perform their jobs effectively in a safe and supportive environment.1Stress and health are increasingly becoming an important part of organizational behavior (OB). Public policy experts, researchers, politicians, managers, and employees alike are beginning to recognize that the detrimental effects of mismanaged stress at work are a public health crisis. Stress is (quite literally) a killer, and the statistics on workplace stress are shocking.2 One compilation of statistics suggests that (1) 94 percent of workers in the United States experience stress at their workplace (and 63 percent of them are ready to quit their jobs because of it); (2) it results in up to $187 billion in productivity and health care losses annually; (3) it causes about two-thirds of U.S. workers to lose sleep; (4) it causes a million people to miss work every day; and (5) it results in around 120,000 deaths annually.3 IBH Solutions, a leading provider of wellness programs (discussed later in this chapter), finds that employees need professional help at higher rates than ever.4In this chapter, we describe stress and health in organizations. We discuss how the stress process unfolds, mental and physical health considerations at work, and the nature of work–life balance. In closing, we consider what individuals and organizations can do to better manage stress levels and realize positive outcomes for OB, which, after all, is the purpose of this text.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 628 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations CHAPTER ­1 629 The Nature of Stress in Organizations Do you feel stressed? If so, join the crowd. As Exhibit 18- 1 shows, work is a major source of stress in the lives of young adults (ages 18–23). Everyone experiences stress in some way, shape, or form. Stress emerges from many sources at work. Racial prejudice is one particularly nefarious source that has left professionals such as Jessica Jackson, a Black clinical psychologist with the Department of Veterans, strained. Thinking back to her high school days, her teacher would say she was in the wrong room and give her lower grades than the other classmates (even on group projects). Jackson has had the stressful and frustrating task of confronting prejudice and discrimination. 5 When you talk about stress with others, you probably refer to all of it uniformly as “stress.” 6 Stressful events and situations stress you out, and you feel the impact of stress behaviorally, psychologically, and physically. It is plain to see that at its core, stress is part of a process. During this process, many factors (e.g., antecedents and consequences) come into play. After all, not everyone becomes 18- 1 Describe how the stress process unfolds in the workplace. Source: Based on American Psychological Association, Stress in American 2019 (Washington, DC: APA, November 2019): https://www.apa.org/news/press/ releases/stress/2019/stress-america-2019.pdf Work Is One of the Top Sources of Stress for Young Adults (Ages 18–23) Exhibit 18- 1 What area of your life causes you the most stress?Area Causes Most StressMoney 78%Work 64%Housing costs 52%Job stabilityThe economy51%44% Paralyzed or Invigorated by Stress? OB POLL Paralyzedby stress43% 57%Invigoratedby stressSource: Based on M. Connolly and M. Slade, “The United States of Stress 2019,” Everyday Health , May 7, 2019, https://www.everydayhealth.com/wellness/united-states-of-stress/ M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 629 13/12/22 3:25 AM

630 PART 4    The Organization System“stressed out” by the same things, and not everyone responds in the same way. (Some can even be invigorated by stress; see the OB Poll.) Therefore, it might be helpful for us to differentiate between these factors.In this chapter, we distinguish between stressors, stress, and strain (see the model in Exhibit 18-2).7 First, you are probably most familiar with stress, which we define as a generally unpleasant perception and appraisal of stressors. What, then, are stressors? Stressors refer to conditions or events that an individual perceives as challenging or threatening. In essence, stressors are the antecedents to the experience of stress. An upcoming project deadline can be perceived as a challenging or threatening stressor to employees. Then, as a result of stress, an individual experiences strain, or the psychological, physiological, and behavioral consequences of stress. That project deadline and the stress that it causes can lead to strain—for instance, anxiety, lack of sleep, and procrastination. Therefore, strain encompasses the consequences of the experience of stress.8StressorsWe tend to distinguish between two types of stressors: challenge and hindrancestressors.9 Researchers have argued that challenge stressors—or stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, and time urgency—operate quite differently from hindrance stressors—or stressors that keep you from reaching your goals (for example, red tape, office politics, confusion over job responsibilities).10Evidence suggests that both challenge and hindrance stressors lead to strain,11 although hindrance stressors lead to increased strain levels.12 Challenge stressors lead to more motivation, engagement, and performance than hindrance stressors.13 On the other hand, hindrance stressors appear to negatively affect safety compliance and participation, employee engagement, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, performance, and withdrawal than do challenge stressors.14 Social situations have been traditionally viewed as hindrance stressors (e.g., interpersonal conflict). However, some recent research is challenging this notion and suggesting some people view winning others over as an invigorating challenge (e.g., sales professionals, development officers),15 navigated effectively by the politically skilled.16Researchers have sought to clarify the conditions under which each type of stressor begins the stress process. For example, challenge stressors tend to lead to improved work engagement when employees are in a good mood.17Individual differences play a role. Conscientious employees are also more likely to view both challenge and hindrance stressors negatively (because they are more perceptive and aware that they are stressors), resulting in strain and increased turnover.18 Moreover, those who hold power are more likely to see stressors as challenging instead of hindering. However, when they become aware that other people rely on them to make things happen, these challenges become hindrances.18The timing and context also matter. Employees who experience challenge stressors inconsistently (e.g., they come and go instead of remaining constant and predictable) can actually experience strain and performance losses.20Moreover, unnecessary tasks can act as hindrance stressors that thwart the positive aspects of challenge stressors. (In other words, too many hindrance stressors can cancel out the good effects of challenge stressors.)21 Challenge stressors improve job performance in a supportive work environment, whereas hindrance stress reduces job performance in all work environments.22Exhibit 18-2 suggests that stressors can come from environmental, organizational, or personal sources.23stress A generally unpleasant perception and appraisal of stressors.stressor Conditions or events that an individual perceives as challenging or threatening.strain The psychological, physiological, and behavioral consequences of stress.challenge stressors Stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, and time urgency.hindrance stressors Stressors that keep you from reaching your goals—for example, red tape, office politics, and confusion over job responsibilities.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 630 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 631Environmental Stressors Just as environmental uncertainty influences an organization’s design and structure, it also influences stress levels among employees in that organization.24 Two types of environmental uncertainty are worth mentioning: economic and political. Changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties. When the economy is in a recession, people become increasingly anxious about their job security.25 Political uncertainties result when political threats and changes induce stress. For instance, during the political turmoil that ensued in the United States in 2020, the majority of surveyed Americans reported “the future of [the] nation,” “the current political climate,” and “political unrest around the nation” as significant stressors.26Organizational Stressors There is no shortage of factors within an organization that can cause stress. Pressures to avoid errors or complete tasks in a limited time, work overload, a demanding and insensitive boss, and unpleasant coworkers are a few examples. We have categorized these factors around the task, role, and interpersonal demands. Task demands relate to a person’s job. They include the design of the job (including its degree of autonomy, task variety, and automation), working conditions, and the physical work layout. Role demands relate to pressures placed on a person as a function of their particular role in the organization.27 As some examples, role conflict creates expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy. Role overload occurs when the employee is expected to take on too much. Role ambiguity means role expectations are not clearly understood and the employee is not sure what to do. Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees. Some pressures are expected, but a rapidly growing body of research has shown that negative coworker and supervisor behaviors, including fights, bullying, incivility, abusive supervision, and racial/sexual harassment, are very strongly related to stress at work.28Personal Stressors The typical individual may work between forty and fifty hours a week. But the experiences and problems people encounter in the other hours of the week can “spill over” (see the upcoming section on work–life balance) to the job. For example, the quality and quantity of sleep an individual gets can Exhibit 18-2 A Model of StressPhysiological strain• Immediate effects• Illness• Chronic health conditions• Anxiety• Lower emotional well-being• Lower job satisfactionPsychological strainBehavioral strain• Lower job performance• Higher absenteeism• Higher turnoverPotential stressors Potential strainsExperienced stress • Task demands• Role demands• Interpersonal demandsEnvironmental stressors• Economic uncertainty• Political uncertaintyPersonal stressors• Family problems• Economic problemsOrganizational stressorsM18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 631 13/12/22 3:25 AM

632 PART 4    The Organization Systemadversely affect the amount of strain they experience.28 The final category of sources of stress at work includes factors of an employee’s personal life: family issues and personal economic problems. Family issues, even good ones, can cause stress that has a significant impact on individuals.29 Family issues are often closely related to work–life conflict.31 Lastly, personal economic problems of overextended financial resources create stress and siphon attention away from work.Stressors Are Additive When we review stressors individually, it is easy to overlook that stress is an additive phenomenon—it builds up.31 For example, when you experience incivility from customers or coworkers, this can lead you to have a poor night’s sleep and experience additional strain beyond the incivility you just experienced.32 Each new and persistent stressor adds to an individual’s stress level. So a single stressor may be relatively unimportant in and of itself. Still, if added to an already high level of stress, it can be too much. To appraise the total amount of stress an individual is under, we must add up all the sources and severity levels of that person’s stress. Because this cannot be easily quantified or observed, managers should remain aware of the potential stress loads from organizational factors. Many employees are willing to express their perceived stress load at work to a caring manager.StrainStress manifests as strain in many ways, such as high blood pressure, ulcers, irritability, difficulty making routine decisions, changes in appetite, accident proneness, and the like. Refer back to Exhibit 18-2. These symptoms fit under three general categories: physiological, psychological, and behavioral symptoms.34The former two we discuss in greater detail in the next sections.Physiological Strain Most early concern with stress was directed at physiological symptoms because most researchers were specialists in the health and medical sciences. Their work concluded that stress could create changes in metabolism, increase heart and breathing rates and blood pressure, bring on headaches, and induce heart attacks.35 Evidence now clearly suggests stress may have other harmful physiological effects, including backaches, headaches, eye strain, sleep disturbances, dizziness, fatigue, loss of appetite, gastrointestinal problems, and even cardiovascular disease.36 Other research has found that stress, in general, impairs episodic memory (but enhances memory after a stressful event).37Psychological Strain Job dissatisfaction (see the chapter on job attitudes) is an obvious cause of stress. But stress shows itself in other psychological states—for instance, tension, anxiety, irritability, and boredom. Jobs that provide a low level of variety, significance, autonomy, feedback, and identity appear to create stress and reduce satisfaction and involvement in the job.38Behavioral Strain Research on behavior and stress has been conducted across several countries. Over time, the relationships appear relatively consistent. Behaviorrelated stress symptoms include reductions in productivity; increases in absences, safety incidents, and turnover; changes in eating habits; increased smoking or consumption of alcohol; rapid speech; fidgeting; and sleep disorders.39EustressAlthough stress is typically discussed in a negative context, it also has a positive purpose.40 In response to stress, your nervous system, hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands supply you with stress hormones to cope. Your heartbeat and M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 632 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 633breathing accelerate to increase oxygen while your muscles tense for action.41 This is a time when stress offers potential gain. Consider, for example, the superior performance of an athlete or stage performer in a critical situation. Such individuals often use stress positively to rise to the occasion and perform at their maximum. Similarly, many professionals see the pressures of heavy workloads and deadlines as positive challenges that enhance the quality of their work and the satisfaction they get from their job. This form of stress has been labeled as eustress (from Greek root eu, meaning “good”), or a healthy, positive, and constructive appraisal of stressors.42A significant amount of research has investigated the positive aspects of stress. One proposed pattern of this relationship is the inverted U shown in Exhibit 18-3.43 The logic underlying the figure is that low to moderate stress levels stimulate the body and increase its ability to react. Individuals may perform tasks better, more intensely, or more rapidly. But too much stress places impossible demands on a person that results in lower performance. Despite its popularity and intuitive appeal, the inverted-U model has not earned a lot of empirical support.44 Maybe the model misses links between stressors and felt stress and performance? Sometimes, we could be stressed, but we feel fine for other reasons (e.g., individual differences, mood, context).45 Therefore, this model may be a good, neutral starting point from which to study differences. But we need to consider that the curve may be shifted left or right for certain employees in certain environments.Physical Health at WorkStressors and the experience of stress can result in both physical and psychological strain that often co-occur in response to stress.46 The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted just how strong health implications are for organizational functioning.47For instance, one in four essential workers has been diagnosed with a mental health disorder since the onset of the pandemic. In addition, approximately one in three received treatment from a mental health professional.48 The “collective trauma” of the pandemic led to many employees describing a deterioration in physical and mental health.49 In this section, we describe why acknowledging physical and mental health matters in organizations and the areas that have received the most attention by researchers and practitioners, which in the past several decades, has emerged as its own field within the OB domain.50eustress A healthy, positive, and constructive appraisal of stressors.18-2   Discuss how sleep, illness, and injury affect physical health at work.The Proposed Inverted-U Relationship Between Stress and Job PerformanceExhibit 18-3PerformanceLow StressLowHighHighM18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 633 13/12/22 3:25 AM

634 PART 4    The Organization SystemAs described in the previous section, physical health is a major form of strain in organizations.51 Although we often think of physical health as an extremely important outcome in its own right (poor health can lead to premature death), physical health also influences important work outcomes such as interpersonal relationships, productivity, and withdrawal. For instance, immune system health, inflammation, and the gut biome have all been shown to influence emotion, motivation, thinking, and behavior at work.52 Although the link between various physiological systems and behavior in the workplace is emerging, we focus on two areas that have been subject to quite a bit of attention in recent years: (1) sleep and (2) illness and injury.SleepIf you have ever held a job where you clocked into work after very little sleep, you probably remember how difficult it was. You may have used caffeine to try to stay awake, counted the hours until the end of your shift, and performed your tasks in a cognitively detached manner. You may have been called out by a supervisor for errors or inattentiveness or even had poor interactions with your coworkers. Indeed, the effects of sleep (see also Myth or Science?) and the fatigue that results (i.e., sleepiness) have piqued the interests of researchers in particular,53 with the majority of studies suggesting that sleep quality has a moderately negative impact on job attitudes and psychological health and mood at work.54 Moreover, sleep deprivation has a substantial impact on memory,55 cognitive task performance,56 and more general job outcomes for both managers and employees, like task performance, attendance, safety behavior, and counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs).57 A lack of good-quality sleep primarily harms performance by depleting cognitive resources and causes an uptick in CWB due to its negative effect on mood and self-control.58Various work-related stressors have been shown to impair sleep quality; such stressors include unfinished work tasks, social stressors, poor leadership, perceived discrimination, and role conflict.59 As described in the previous section, these stressors tend to have a compounding effect. Compounding job demands (and poor stress management) can lead to a steady decrease in sleep quality over the workweek, leaving you drained by the end of the week.60 So what can be done to combat poor sleep? Research suggests that, beyond the obvious solution of getting more, good-quality sleep,61 physical activity, recovery experiences with social support groups and possibly even wearing blue light-blocking glasses can help.62Illness and InjuryA second area of physical health that OB practitioners and researchers are concerned with is illness and injury due to its connection with absenteeism and productivity loss.64 Although COVID-19 highlighted the dangers of coming to work while sick, a whopping nine out of ten employees in one large survey admitted to going to work sick before the pandemic.63 Although we will likely see the culture change surrounding the acceptability of working sick in the United States, many attribute the hesitance to stay home to losing sick leave and inflexible or coercive supervisors.66Clearly, going into work while sick is not optimal for obvious reasons.67First and foremost, working close to others while sick with a contagious disease increases the risk that other team members will also become ill (and will likely increase their anxieties about working with you, especially during COVID-19).68Second, people are not as effective at doing their jobs when ill or injured and can slow work processes. This effect will be even greater if the illness is spread to other members of the team, who then experience the same decrements. OB professionals refer to working while ill or injured as presenteeism.69 presenteeism The act of working while ill or injured.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 634 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations CHAPTER ­1 635 Who is more likely to go to work while sick? Employees are more likely to engage in presenteeism when work forces compel them to and when they have a chronic physical condition (e.g., asthma). 70 Moreover, people are strongly compelled to work when they love their job and want to work. 69 Organizational culture (see the chapter on culture and change) plays a substantial role here, with cultures tending to encourage presenteeism, discourage presenteeism, or otherwise emphasize individual choice. 72 To this point, we have suggested that presenteeism is not the best choice. Some, however, suggest that it is more a matter of degree. People with chronic conditions or those with more minor illnesses can perhaps be effective when provided with flexibility and resources, functionally continuing their work. 73Personal and Work Risk Factors Most of us spend nearly one-third of our daily waking lives at work. Logically, our experiences at work influence what we do to promote our health and well-being. In fact, one review of nearly three hundred studies suggests that what we do in the workplace is just as much of a risk factorfor illness as is secondhand smoke! 74 Many examples abound of how workplace stressors and unhealthy behavior at work are risk factors for physical ailments. Myth or Science? When You Are Working Hard, Sleep Is Optional This statement is false. Individuals who do not get enough sleep are unable to perform well on the job. One study found that sleeplessness costs U.S. employers $63.2 billion per year, almost $2,300 per employee, partially due to decreased productivity and increased safety issues. Sleep deprivation has been cited as a contributing factor in heart disease, obesity, stroke, and cancer. It can also lead to disastrous accidents. For example, U.S. military researchers report that sleep deprivation is one of the top causes of friendly fire (when soldiers mistakenly fire on their own troops), and 20 percent of auto accidents are due to drowsy drivers. More than 158 people on Air India Flight 812 from Dubai to Mangalore were killed when pilot Zlatko Glusica awoke from a nap and, suffering from sleep inertia, overshot the runway in one of India’s deadliest air crashes. Sleeplessness affects the performance of millions of workers. According to research, one-third of U.S. employees in most industries, and more than onequarter of workers in the finance and insurance industry, are sleep deprived, getting fewer than six hours of sleep per night (seven to nine are recommended). More than 50 percent of U.S. adults age 19 to 29, 43 percent age 30 to 45, and 38 percent age 46 to 64 report that they rarely or never get a good night’s sleep on weekdays. Research has shown that lack of sleep impairs our ability to learn skills and find solutions, which may be part of why law enforcement organizations, Super Bowl–winning football teams, and half the Fortune 500 companies employ so-called fatigue management specialists as performance consultants. Along with sleeplessness, insomnia has been a growing problem. Recent research in Norway indicated that up to 34 percent of motor vehicle deaths during the fourteen-year study period might have been prevented if the people involved in the crashes had not displayed insomnia symptoms. Managers and employees increasingly take prescription sleep aids, attend sleep labs, and consume caffeine to either sleep better or reduce the effects of sleeplessness on their performance. These methods often backfire. Studies indicate that prescription sleep aids increase sleep time by only eleven minutes and cause short-term memory loss. The effects of sleep labs may not be helpful after the sessions are over. And the diminishing returns of caffeine, perhaps the most popular method of fighting sleep deprivation (74 percent of U.S. adults consume caffeine every day), require the ingestion of increasing amounts to achieve alertness, which can make users jittery before the effect wears off and leave them exhausted. When you are working hard, it is easy to consider using sleep hours to get the job done and to think that the stress and adrenaline from working will keep you alert. It is also easy to consider artificial methods in attempts to counteract the negative impact of sleep deprivation. However, research indicates that we are not good at assessing our impaired capabilities when we are sleep deprived when it comes to maximizing performance and reducing accidents. In the end, there is no substitute for a solid night’s sleep. 63M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 635 13/12/22 3:25 AM

636 PART 4    The Organization SystemFor instance, a 21-year-old intern at Merrill Lynch collapsed and died due to working 72 hours straight.75 Moreover, after a steel mill closed its doors for good, leaving many employees out of work, one 56-year old employee died of a heart attack shortly after due to the shock.76Although there may be a direct link between what we experience at work and our health, it is more likely that people behave in unhealthy ways to cope with stressors at work. For instance, employees may skip lunch, eat convenient and unhealthy foods, smoke cigarettes, neglect their sleep needs, or abuse substances to cope with stress at work.77 One study of nearly five thousand workers demonstrated that these behaviors were linked to many metabolic risk factorsassociated with increased risk for cardiovascular and immune system diseases. More specifically, the regular experience of hindrance stressors at work resulted in moderate increases in high-risk eating and cigarette smoking, leading to increases in worrisome, objective health indicators such as body mass index (BMI), cholesterol levels, and insulin resistance.78 These metabolic risk factors can lead to health conditions such as obesity, resulting in increased company health costs, the risk for absenteeism and injury, and even prejudice and discrimination.79 Stress at work can also lead individuals to injury, as they start to neglect safety behavior. For instance, the exhausting experiences of worrying about health and financial threats from COVID-19 led many workers to relax their safety behaviors.80It is difficult for employees to engage in healthy behavior when they experience stress at work. Employees encountering high-stress levels and stressors at work can mitigate these risks through planning. Employees that plan for eating healthy and physical exercise are more likely to follow through than those acting out of convenience or impulse.81 Moreover, programs targeted toward developing resilience (described later in this chapter) can reduce physical health risks related to stress at work.82Mental Health at WorkJust as workplace stress can affect physical health through increases in risky, unhealthy behavior, so, too, does workplace stress affect mental health at work.81In fact, the cost of treating employees with both physical and mental health conditions is two to three times higher than those without co-occurring illnesses.84 In the United States, 51.5 million adults over the age of 18 reported they were suffering from a mental health disorder in 2019.85 What is the impact on work outcomes? Conditions such as depression reduce cognitive performance 35 percent of the time at work.86 In our discussion of mental health in the workplace, we focus on three primary areas: (1) job insecurity as a stressor, (2) workaholism behaviors, and (3) the experience of psychological distress at work, including burnout and depression.Job InsecurityEmployees experience job insecurity when they perceive that their jobs are at risk or that their employment is not stable.87 Job insecurity is a highly emotional perception that greatly affects employees’ mental health, affecting sleep, depressive symptoms, and burnout.88 Although job insecurity can reflect increased demands on the job, it is more likely signaled by a lack of social and structural resources, such as fair interpersonal treatment and communication, leader–member exchange, and support and trust from coworkers, most often in environments where unemployment is high.89As a stressor, job insecurity is relatively unique. It prompts employees to do what they can to preserve their jobs, adjust their efforts to signal their viability, or 18-3   Recognize how maladaptive mental health conditions can manifest as a consequence of stressors at work.job insecurity The perception that one’s job is at risk or that one’s employment is not stable.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 636 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations CHAPTER ­1 637to reconsider their employment. Job insecurity can motivate employees to build stronger relations with their coworkers and supervisors to reduce the insecurity, Toward a Better World Freelancers Union: Advocating for Gig Workers Faced with Consistent Job Insecurity In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, more than 48 million Americans applied for unemployment insurance. Although rideshare drivers are “gig workers,” they were classified as “essential workers” by the government and permitted to continue working during the pandemic. The experience was extremely stressful for many of these workers, who faced job insecurity through plummeting demand and lack of financial support. Moreover, these drivers faced immense health concerns due to fear of infection. For instance, one Uber driver (Julie of Cincinnati, Ohio) was terrified to continue working for the rideshare company as the sole provider for her family. She recalled driving one day during the pandemic, noting that “each of the people tipped me just a little over a dollar and I’m sorry, but my life is worth more than that.” Shortly after this experience, Julie applied for unemployment. However, what is unique about this situation is that normally Julie would not have been eligible for unemployment because she is a gig worker. The passage of the federal CARES Act extended unemployment eligibility to gig workers during this time of crisis. Notably, many gig workers lost these benefits in states where leaders cut off Pandemic Unemployment Assistance (PUA) before the assistance was set to expire. During normal times, gig workers potentially face many hindrance stressors that adversely affect their stress levels and, ultimately, their mental health, which includes job insecurity, unclear employment status, non-reimbursed expenses, continuously declining reimbursement rates, an inability to make a living wage, competition with other gig workers, employer double standards (treating them like other employees but providing fewer resources), dishonest clients (breaching terms of the agreement and withholding pay), “hustling” to gain new clients, and no clear career advancement opportunities. However, the picture is not all doom and gloom: As Louis Hyman writes in Temp , gig work involves a great deal of autonomy and independence—job characteristics that would normally be highly coveted aspects of work. However, Hyman argues that the way forward is to reconnect gig workers with the job resources and support that these workers would have received in traditional employer–employee arrangements. It is in these additional resources that the demands of gig work can be alleviated. As Hyman suggests: “Americans need life security . . . not job security.” This has caused many people to begin organizing and advocating for “life security” on behalf of gig workers. However, the National Labor Relations Act in the United States currently does not apply to gig workers despite a majority expressing interest in joining a union (for instance, by one survey, 80 percent of Los Angeles ridesharing drivers). This has not stopped gig workers from uniting to advocate for better benefits and security. For instance, the Freelancers Union is the fastest- growing and largest entity (it is technically not a union with collective bargaining power) uniting gig workers today. Although the 500,000 members only make up a fraction of the 56.7 million gig workers in the United States, the Freelancers Union offers free membership with many resources since the 1990s. For instance, the union offers insurance benefit options, including health, dental, term life, disability, vision, and liability. It is a source of social support and advice from experts and other gig workers, including legal and financial tools. For those members living in New York City, the union offers the use of the Freelancers Hub. Although its physical space shut its doors due to the pandemic, it is a virtual community space for New York City’s gig workers. Most notably, the Freelancers Union is working with legislators to determine how they can advocate for gig worker policy change. Rafael Espinal, the executive director of the union, notes that it is a challenge to balance all sides of the picture. Espinal suggests that the major question is “How can we create a bill that will strike the right balance between making sure that workers . . . get the justice they need but not having a negative impact on freelancers who do independent work and are happy with the freedom they currently have?” Regardless of how people view gig work, the fact is that most gig workers do experience heightened levels of strain that threaten their health as contributors to society. Indeed, the future for gig workers is uncertain despite attempts to come together and advocate for gig worker rights and enhance access to resources. But just as the gig economy increased demand for this category of workers, the systems can also adjust to support these workers and provide the resources they need to ensure manageable stress and good health. 106M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 637 13/12/22 3:25 AM

638 PART 4    The Organization Systemor alternatively, consider other places to work.90 Interestingly, job insecurity is an especially salient stressor for gig workers,91 and it negatively affects their job attitudes.92 Although these workers have much greater autonomy than traditional full- or part-time employees, gig workers experience more strain and work–family conflict (discussed later in this chapter).93 Due to the nature of their work, gig workers are prone to experience fluctuations in their workloads—demands they have to meet to ensure they are hired again and protect their valuable reputation with other clients (pressures that lead to increased strain).94WorkaholismOne possible response to job insecurity is workaholism (although it can also be because people really love their jobs and feel a calling to work excessively).95Workaholism involves feeling compelled to work due to internal pressures, thinking about work even when not working, and going above and beyond what is reasonably expected (to one’s own detriment).96 Leaders tend to be especially prone to workaholism. For instance, some leaders feel compelled to “sacrifice” their personal lives and recovery time to “keep the ship running,” which can lead to workaholic behaviors.97 Similarly, self-employed entrepreneurs regularly cope with job insecurity by working more than they should. They tend to earn more because of it (despite a negative impact on their health).98 In some ways, they might seem like ideal employees. This perception might be why, when most people are asked in interviews what their greatest weakness is, they may reflexively say, “I just work too hard.” However, there is a difference between working hard and working compulsively.99Workaholic behavior does not necessarily lead to more productivity than others, despite the extreme efforts involved. The strain of putting in such a high level of work effort eventually begins to wear on the person, leading to higher levels of work–life conflict, burnout, and higher blood pressure.100 Moreover, the nature of work might change as a result of workaholic behaviors: One study of nearly two thousand dentists demonstrated that workaholic behaviors led to an increase in challenging workplace stressors along with an eventual increase in structural resources (perhaps also increasing job security).101 Although job security might be improved by workaholic tendencies, the costs employees pay in burnout suggests that it is likely not worth the trouble.Psychological Distress at WorkSome employees encounter psychologically traumatic experiences in their jobs. For instance, many first responders recall the horrifying incidents they must experience that lead to psychological distress. As one firefighter noted, “Today, when I lay down and sleep at night, I can still see the faces” of the tragic victims encountered on the job. “I carry that with me. I will see that the rest of my life.”102 These experiences highlight the mental health toll of burnout and depression at work.Burnout Many employees at some point in their careers experience burnout, a work-related mental health syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment.103 Emotional exhaustion refers to feeling overextended and emotionally depleted. Depersonalizationrefers to maladaptively coping with the job through callousness and distancing. Reduced personal accomplishment means losing a sense of productivity or contribution on the job.104 Some consider burnout to effectively be the “opposite” of job engagement discussed in previous chapters.105Burnout has a moderate effect on employee outcomes, including an increase in absenteeism and turnover along with a reduction in job performance.108Research also shows that the effects of burnout compound. Although stressors Workaholism A maladaptive mental state characterized by feeling compelled to work due to internal pressures, thinking about work even when not working, and going above and beyond what is reasonably expected (to one’s own detriment).burnout A work-related mental health syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 638 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 639lead to burnout as a form of strain, the experience of burnout also leads to the emergence of newer stressors in a vicious cycle.109 For example, being burned out can lead to reduced performance, leading to supervisor disciplinary action (a new stressor).Moreover, some employees are more likely than others to experience burnout. Those low on emotional stability, for instance, are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion. At the same time, high extroversion in employees is linked with a lower likelihood of emotional exhaustion (along with a higher sense of personal accomplishment).110 Women are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion than men, but men are more likely to experience depersonalization than women.111 Furthermore, cultures characterized by tight, masculine norms (see the chapter on diversity, equity, and inclusion in organizations) tend to be more prone to burnout than looser, egalitarian societies.112Depression Despite a large degree of attention, some researchers suggest that burnout is very similar in many ways to depression,113 a mental health disorder characterized by sadness, loss of interest, despondency, and dejection. Depressive symptoms such as these often co-occur with other negative emotions such as anxiety and anger.114Of all mental health conditions, depression is the most common mental health condition (affecting about 9.5 percent of the U.S. population annually), leading to serious difficulties at work.115 Like workaholism and burnout, depressive states are heavily predicted by constant job insecurity (although depressive symptoms also tend to reinforce perceptions of job insecurity, with suffering employees experiencing a heightened awareness of their job insecurity).112 Moreover, negative interpersonal interactions (e.g., bullying, social isolation) can cause employees to become depressed over time;116 those bullied while depressed can experience a psychological sting so painful that some may even contemplate suicide.117The good news is that the immediate cessation of the bullying experiences tends to reduce depressive symptoms very quickly in some cases.115 Moreover, interventions that reduce the stigma surrounding mental health conditions and convey appreciation for employees can effectively reduce depression.119Mechanisms of Health and StressNow that we have established the nature of stress and health in organizations, let us describe how they emerge. Although there are many compelling health and stress theories in OB, we focus on four of the most popular in this section: conservation of resources, demand-control-support, job demands-resources, and effort-reward-imbalance.120Conservation of ResourcesConservation of resources (COR) theory suggests that employees strive to obtain, foster, retain, and protect the resources and things they value.121 Resourcesare factors within an individual’s control that can be expended toward fulfilling desires, attaining goals, or meeting task demands. Employees must invest time and energy to gain resources and protect or replenish resources from loss. Concerning stress, employees are more aware of resource losses than resource gains. In other words, a missed opportunity is not as concerning as a loss of a cherished resource. However, when resources have been lost, employees become motivated to replace what was lost. Moreover, when people are overextended or exhausted, they become desperate, defensive, aggressive, and irrational in their pursuit of regaining or replenishing what was lost.12218-4   Compare the four major stress and health theories.resources Factors within an individual’s control that can be expended toward fulfilling desires, attaining goals, or meeting task demands.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 639 13/12/22 3:25 AM

640 PART 4    The Organization SystemResearch has been supportive of COR theory. Diminished job control and social support have been linked with burnout, suggesting that a loss of resources leads to strain in the form of burnout.123 As another example, in the presence of stressors, employees tend to engage in less voice behavior (see the chapter on power and politics), supporting the resource conservation tenant of COR theory.124 Moreover, seeing other coworkers treated unfairly or even becoming aware of your romantic partner’s job insecurity can result in resource loss. Employees may be more likely to lose self-control or experience strain following these losses of resources.125 Even when these stressors are “good” for the organization, like an enhanced organizational reputation, the demands associated with performing at a high level can threaten employee resources and lead to turnover.126Finally, research on leaders in organizations tends to be one area that has garnered a lot of support for COR theory. Leaders tend to conserve their resources by selectively building relationships with their followers (i.e., LMX differentiation).124 Moreover, they conserve resources when strategically deciding when to try something new (a resource-intensive task) or defaulting to the old ways of doing things.128 Moreover, leader transformational leadership behavior (see the chapter on leadership), although beneficial for followers, can be quite taxing on leaders, eventually leading to resource losses, emotional exhaustion, and turnover.129Effort-Reward Imbalance ModelAlthough falling out of favor in recent years, the effort-reward imbalance (ERI) suggests that employees will experience strain when they put in a great deal of effort for little reward. In turn, employees are motivated to resolve this discrepancy by either (1) putting in less effort or (2) working to maximize or increase the reward.130Although some research on the ERI model supports that imbalance leads to decreased engagement and increased turnover intentions,131 the issue lies in what efforts and rewards we are talking about. Although we may immediately jump to salary when thinking about reward—research found that job security and a sense of competence were related to health to a degree greater thansalary.132Moreover, some facets of effort or reward may depend upon the job in question. For instance, research on bus drivers suggests that effort could involve dealing with road conditions, or interacting with passengers, as some examples.133Clearly, a bus driver who perceives fewer rewards on the job would be more likely to give up on customer service rather than dealing with road conditions (when everyone’s lives are at stake!).As another issue, at what point does the imbalance between effort and reward becoming meaningful or compelling enough to cause changes in the stress experience? It is hard to imagine any imbalance causing distress. It is also hard to pinpoint which is the bigger contributor to the imbalance: effort or reward.131Job Demand-Control-Support ModelAn upcoming project deadline at work is not so bad when you have support from coworkers and supervisors, along with control over how you attain it. The job demand-control-support (JDCS) model suggests strain is a function of three factors: demands, control, and support.135 Demands are the responsibilities, pressures, obligations, and uncertainties that individuals face in the workplace. Control, similar to autonomy discussed in previous chapters (see the chapter on demands Responsibilities, pressures, obligations, and even uncertainties that individuals face in the workplace.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 640 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 641motivation theory), refers to the degree to which employees have discretion over how to do their jobs. Support (similar to the perceived support constructs discussed in the chapter on attitudes) is essentially perceptions of assistance provided by the organization, supervisor, and coworkers. The main tenant behind the JDCS model is that any negative effects of demands on strain can be offset or buffered by control and support, as shown in Exhibit 18-4.Research on the initial JDCS model has not been very supportive of the theory in general.136 However, the “buffering” tenant of the theory has been supported in prior work,137 and demands and control have both been linked separately to the increase and decrease in mortality odds, respectively.138 Many have suggested alterations to the theory to remedy these issues. For instance, one meta-analysis supported the JDCS, but only when various sources of support were disentangled (e.g., supervisor support mattered more than coworker support).139 Taking this “disentanglement” approach further, another meta-analysis found that whether the JDCS was supported depended upon several factors, including the employees’ gender, nationality, and occupations.140 Moreover, some work has “disentangled” the nature of demands, separating challenge and hindrance stressors as demands (see our earlier discussion). In these studies, the JDCS was only supported for hindrance stressors and not challenge stressors because challenges are not viewed negatively by everyone.141Job Demands-Resources ModelWhen you undergo your annual performance review at work, you feel stress because you confront challenge and hindrance demands. A good performance review may lead to a promotion, greater responsibilities, and a higher salary. Exhibit 18-4 The Job Demand-Control-Support Model– –+Demands StrainControl SupportBased on A. B. Bakker and E. Demerouti, “Job Demands-Resources Theory: Taking Stock and Looking Forward,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 22, no. 3 (2017): 273–85.Exhibit 18-5 The Job Demands-Resources ModelPerformanceStrainEngagement––+–++DemandsResourcesM18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 641 13/12/22 3:25 AM

642 PART 4    The Organization SystemA poor review may prevent you from getting a promotion. An extremely poor review might even result in your being fired. To the extent you can draw on resources to meet the demands placed on you—such as preparing for the review, putting the review in perspective (it is not the end of the world), or obtaining social support—you will feel less stress and experience less strain. The job demands-resources (JDR) model depicted in Exhibit 18-5 combines elements of COR theory and the JDCS to suggest that demands and resources both contribute to performance through their distinctive effects on strain (e.g., burnout) and engagement.142The JDR is one of the most popular stress and health theories to date, and research tends to support its utility. Both demands and resources lead to strain (e.g., burnout) as expected.143 However, the relationship between demands and engagement does not tend to be as strong as the other relationships in the model, as sometimes challenging demands (e.g., challenge stressors) can lead employees to become engaged.144 Moreover, the influence of resources often depends on the organizational climate, supportive leadership, and psychological safety in the team or organization: Will others look down on you if you draw on resources?145 Researchers have also supported the JDR in the safety context, with strain leading to safety incidents and engagement in compliant safety behaviors, reducing these incidents’ likelihood.146 The JDR has even been supported in populations of students and teachers.147In general, the JDR helps us understand that strain and engagement are often the results of a balancing act between drawing on resources and meeting demands. It can help us explain, for instance, why people with high levels of educational attainment are not more satisfied with their jobs: Although the resources are greater with higher education (e.g., income, autonomy), the demands are also greater (e.g., longer hours, higher pressure).148Allostasis The discussion so far may give you the impression that individuals seek a steady state in which demands match resources perfectly. While early research emphasized such a homeostatic, or balanced, equilibrium perspective, it has now become clear that no single ideal state exists. Instead, it is more accurate to talk about allostatic models where demands shift, resources shift, and systems of addressing imbalances shift.149 By allostasis, we work to find stability by changing our behaviors and attitudes. It all depends on the allostatic load, or the cumulative effect of stressors on us, given the resources we draw upon.150For example, suppose you feel especially confident in your abilities and have lots of support from others. In that case, you may increase your willingness to experience strain and be better able to mobilize coping resources.151 This would be a situation where the allostatic load was not too great; in other cases where the allostatic load is too great and too prolonged, we may experience psychological or physiological stress symptoms.Demand-resource preferences change in cycles. You have experienced this when you sometimes just feel like relaxing and recovering. At other times you welcome more stimulation and challenge. Much like organizations are in constant change and flux, we respond to stress processes by continually adapting to internal and external sources, and our stability is constantly redefined. Demands also change predictably over time themselves. One study of workers across the life span found that strain is caused partly by financial and economic demands for younger workers—but for older workers, the demands associated with strain are more associated with caregiving demands (e.g., parenting, eldercare).152allostasis Working to change behavior and attitudes to find stability.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 642 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 643Work–Life BalanceKatharina Boesche is a self-employed lawyer struggling to juggle work and family responsibilities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Mandatory school closures resulted in her three children being home, which has made it difficult to find quiet time to work. Boesche works in the early morning hours (between 4 a.m. and 8 a.m.) or late at night. As a result of these stressors, Boesche feels very strained, burned out, and exhausted. Boesche’s experiences reflect the struggles in managing one’s work and home lives.153In this section, we describe the nature of work–life balance in organizations while recognizing that we do not mean “balance” as a state of equilibrium—more like a “balancing act.”154 To this day, most employees aspire toward the ideal of balance, and it is an important predictor of work and family attitudes and performance.155 We describe first the nature of boundaries and the transitions that occur across them. Next, we describe two forms of “spillover” which have implications for employees: conflict and enrichment. Finally, we discuss the role that supportive work policies play in assisting employees in managing and prioritizing their valued commitments. But first, where does the world stand on the issue of work–life balance?The State of Work–Life Balance: A New Normal?The COVID-19 pandemic has put work–life balance, boundaries, conflict, and enrichment in the spotlight. But even before the pandemic, the fine line between work and home life had been consistently and progressively blurring over the years. Employees clung to their smartphones. (Some researchers have described them as “adult pacifiers.”) They strived to be accessible and connected to coworkers 24/7 following the turn of the millennium.156 Strong norms compelled many to sacrifice their personal lives and always be “hustling” to achieve success without paying any mind to boundaries, stress, or health implications of such decisions.154But with this jarring transition, a sizable portion of the populace worldwide became “remote workers”—seemingly overnight. As Kevin Collins, CEO of Charli, noted: “The global pandemic has changed the way we work, blurring what was already a hazy divide between life and work while raising questions around the long-term impacts on our mental wellness.”158 Of course, many managers and executives are dismissive of these claims. As David Solomon, CEO of Goldman Sachs, said: “It is not a new normal. It is an aberration that we are going to correct as quickly as possible.”159Regardless, before the pandemic, employees viewed work–life balance as a unicorn or a life goal to aspire toward160—now, many are considering this old perspective to be problematic. Instead, many think of it as something much more flexible, enigmatic, and nebulous. From a view that work–life balance is like an achievement to aspire toward (enjoyed by the select few corner-office executives in the upper echelons), current thinking may be shifting toward considering it as a continuously balancing process. During this process, we remain self-aware, prioritize, and shuffle our demands and commitments in a way that meets our needs and that works for us.161Work–Life BoundariesThe concepts of role conflict and COR theory are certainly relevant to work–life issues because of our competing roles at work and home and our finite resources to address demands in each context. However, the concept of work–life boundaries (also sometimes called borders) is unique to research in this area.16218-5   Differentiate between work–life conflict and work–life enrichmentM18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 643 13/12/22 3:25 AM

644 PART 4    The Organization SystemWork–life boundaries refer to the lines that demarcate our lives. We move and transition between these domains both physically and/or psychologically, and people, things, and communications from some domains can move across boundaries and serve as interruptions in our daily lives (e.g., your coworker calling you on vacation or even stepping on your child’s LEGO right in the middle of a conference call).At first glance, this may seem like a relatively simple concept. However, boundaries are complicated because people have preferences for how integrated they want their work and home lives to be and how willing they are to “move” across domains (e.g., taking time off to deal with personal issues).163Furthermore, people (and their job descriptions) are often limited in negotiating these boundaries (does the job allow flexibility and control of boundaries? or do they have to be in one space, free of interruptions, for extended periods?).164 Those who prefer or practice work–life integration tend to be more likely to move between domains easily (e.g., allowing friends to visit them while at work, answering work emails at home while preparing dinner, and frequently talking about their home lives at work and vice versa).165 On the other hand, those who prefer clear boundaries are more likely to maintain strong boundaries and psychologically detach from one domain when in the other (e.g., turning their smartphone off once they are off the clock). Moreover, when employees engage in boundary management, they enact strategies or tactics to negotiate the time, space, and roles they play in each of the domains.166 These tactics can come in one of three forms: physical, behavioral, and psychological (examples are shown in Exhibit 18-6).How well do people manage the boundaries between work–life domains? Employees high in the personality trait of conscientiousness (see the chapter on personality and individual differences) are more likely to perceive that they have greater boundary control and feel better equipped to manage cross-role interruptions. Those with low emotional stability, on the other hand, are more likely to view the cross-role interruptions as intrusive and stressful.167 Moreover, social identity also plays a role. Those who strongly identify with their family units tend to treat boundaries more strictly and as less permeable,168 looking to ensure permeability for the more valued domain while at the same time protecting it from intrusion from other domains.169 Finally, boundary management might be Exhibit 18-6 Boundary Management Tactic ExamplesTactic Form ExamplePhysical Tactics Establishing timeboundariesMarking workspacesFacilitating boundarytransitionsI always leave work at 5 p.m. to be home in time for dinner.I will always work in the second bedroom, and if the door is shut,do not come in.I bought a house a five-minute bike ride away from where I work.PsychologicalTacticsPrioritizing and goalsettingMaking compromisesWhen the clients are in town this week, I will spend more time buildingrelationships with them.I will make my working late all week up to the rest of my family by going to themovies with them on Friday.BehavioralTacticsSetting expectationsNegotiating resourcesPlease respect my time by not calling me on vacation unless it is an emergency.I will ask my coworkers if they want to come to a family event with me thisweekend, where we can discuss the new project.Based on T. D. Allen, E. Cho, and L. L. Meier, “Work-Family Boundary Dynamics,” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 1 (2014): 99–121.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 644 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 645a skill that gets better with age. Multiple studies among bank employees demonstrate that older workers set and maintain stronger boundaries, which leads to better work–life balance.170Regardless of traits, unwarranted interruptions in either domain (e.g., boundary violations) can result in frustration and other negative affective reactions.171 Moreover, research on (newly) remote workers during the COVID-19 pandemic and other employees with high technology demands suggests that employees with segmentation preferences who engaged in clear physical tactics (e.g., establishing explicit work spaces, turning their devices off during nonwork hours) achieved better work–life balance than other employees.172 A lack of boundaries also seems to matter: Work–life integration, for instance, has been shown to impair mental health because individuals do not have time to “recharge” from adverse experiences in either domain.173Work–Life SpilloverIn the prior section, we described how people set boundaries between their work and nonwork lives. Sometimes, elements from one domain will directly impact the domain we are currently in (e.g., a parent bringing you lunch at your office). However, sometimes the impact of one domain on another may be more subtle and psychological. For instance, work–life spillover occurs when our psychological responses to one domain (e.g., our positive or negative moods) are carried over into another domain and impact it in some way.174For example, many people spend a lot of time commuting—about 27.6 minutes one-way in the United States. Moreover, about 5 percent of all U.S. workers use some form of public transportation.175 The commute itself serves as a domain that can spill over to work or life domains (e.g., a bad traffic jam can leave you in a bad mood and late for work).176Sometimes, the spillover we experience crosses over to other people.177 For instance, if you encountered several angry customers and big crowds at your movie theater in the afternoon, you may be more irritable and snap back at your friends when you hang out with them later. As we describe them, spillover and crossover can reverberate through a persons’ social network. For instance, let us say that an individual experiences a negative interaction with an abusive supervisor at work. Their negative emotions at home that have spilled over from work can cross over to their partner. Then their partner might experience spillover when they bring these negative emotions to their place of work.Moreover, when we experience spillover (as conflict or enrichment), the experience can amplify attitudes toward both domains (see the chapter on job attitudes). In other words, receiving a long call from a supervisor right in the middle of a family reunion is likely to leave you dissatisfied with the time spent with your family (because of the interruption) and dissatisfied with your job (because of your displeasure at your supervisor’s call).178 In the sections that follow, we discuss the positive (i.e., enrichment) and negative (i.e., conflict) forms of spillover in organizations.179Work–Life Conflict Negative spillover (e.g., work–life conflict) grabbed management’s attention in the 1980s, largely due to the increased entry into the workforce of women with dependent children. In response, most major organizations took action to make their workplaces more family-friendly.180 They introduced onsite child care, summer day camps, flextime, job sharing, leave for school functions, telecommuting, and part-time employment. But organizations quickly realized negative spillover was something that affected all employees. work–life spillover When psychological responses to one domain (e.g., positive or negative moods) are carried over into another domain and impact it in some way.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 645 13/12/22 3:25 AM

646 PART 4    The Organization SystemHeavy workloads and increased travel demands, for instance, made it increasingly hard for parents to meet both work and personal responsibilities.Reviews on work–life conflict suggest that it can be detrimental in several ways.181 It can negatively affect job attitudes and performance. It can even lead to more objective work outcomes, negatively impacting manager performance ratings and upward mobility (e.g., promotions).179 It can negatively affect home life by leading to poor life, leisure, family, and marital strain, and strain causes conflict.183What causes work–life conflict? Typically, work factors tend to more strongly influence work spilling over to life, and life factors tend to more strongly influence life spilling over to work.184 Negative job attitudes, long hours, little support, inflexibility, and job stress lead to life conflict.185 On the other hand, family stress and interpersonal conflict, time spent caring for family members, and having young children are all associated with work conflict. Among these antecedents, stress experienced in either domain appears to be the biggest factor.186Personality traits and individual differences also appear to matter. Employees low on emotional stability and high in negative affect (see the chapters on personality and individual differences as well as emotion and mood) tend to perceive less work–life conflict.187 Moreover, employees who believe they have control over their circumstances and who are high in self-efficacy (see the chapters on motivation) are better able to handle the conflict.188Considering gender, a vast amount of research suggests that gender does not influence the amount or degree of work–life conflict in either direction—everyone experiences it. However, some research does support the notion that men spend more time at work and less time with their families and are perhaps not as good at establishing boundaries as women (leading to more conflict).186Finally, the impact of work on the life domain does not appear to vary across cultures. However, the impact of life on the work domain does appear to vary by several cultural characteristics. Life-to-work conflict appears to be stronger in collectivist societies and those with larger economic gender gaps.190 However, the conflict tends to have less of an effect on work–family satisfaction in these societies.191 Moreover, work unit and family support appear to reduce the occurrence of work–life conflict in cultures that perceive support as a useful resource for people to draw upon.192Work–Life Enrichment Work–family spillover also has a positive side.193 Jeff Bezos, Amazon chair and former CEO, once noted that if he was happy at home, he would bring tremendous energy with him into the office. Furthermore, if he was happy at work, he would also bring tremendous energy with him into his home life.194 Just as work and family life can cause conflict, so too may it cause enrichment. An excellent presentation, compliment from a customer, or raise from your supervisor can lead these positive experiences to spillover to other domains of your life. Similarly, a championship win for a weekend sports league, a mini-vacation to a fun destination, or even a romantic date night with a partner can spill over to work.195But what does the research say on enrichment? Unfortunately, conflict has been given much greater attention than enrichment. However, research does suggest that both types of enrichment (i.e., work-to-life and life-to-work) lead to positive job and life attitudes, increased engagement, decreased strain, better mental and physical health outcomes, and increased performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB).196 Moreover, just like work–life conflict, work variables tend to more strongly influence M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 646 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 647works enrichment of life, and life variables tend to more strongly influence life’s enrichment of work.197Regarding predictors of enrichment, research suggests that both forms of enrichment are primarily the result of increased work engagement (maybe Bezos was on to something?). However, they are also a function of the social support received from family and coworkers and the degree of autonomy on the job.198 Just like with work–life conflict, personality also has an effect. However, different traits predict enrichment, including extroversion and openness to experience.199Flexible and Supportive PoliciesTime pressures are not the primary problem underlying work–life conflicts.200The psychological incursion of work into the family domain—and vice versa—leaves people worrying about personal problems at work and thinking about work problems at home, creating conflict. This suggests organizations should spend less effort helping employees with time management issues and more effort helping them segment their lives, navigate boundary transitions, and facilitate enrichment between both domains.Flexible and supportive policies, such as keeping workloads reasonable, reducing work-related travel, and offering onsite high-quality child care, are examples of practices that can help in this endeavor.198 Leaders play a large role here—encouraging followers to use supportive policies (and playing a part in establishing them), establishing high-quality exchange relationships (LMX; see the chapter on leadership) with followers, and ultimately enabling followers in their pursuit of balance and boundary management.199 As a side note, positive leadership behaviors (e.g., servant leadership) themselves reduce stress and improve health outcomes on their own as well.203 In general, perceptions of family-supportive leadership are more important than more general perceptions of perceived organizational and supervisor support (see the chapter on job attitudes) in reducing work–family conflict.204Moreover, employees (especially cohabitating and parenting employees) tend to react positively to these policies, experiencing heightened job attitudes as a result.205 In addition, following the spillover-crossover effects discussed in the previous section, these policies are so powerful that they can crossover and positively affect the employees’ partners and family members’ work and careers.206Not surprisingly, people differ in their preference for scheduling options and benefits.207 Some prefer organizational initiatives that better segment work from personal life, like flextime, job sharing, and part-time hours. These initiatives allow employees to schedule work hours less likely to conflict with personal responsibilities. Others prefer initiatives that integrate work and personal life, such as gym facilities and company-sponsored family picnics. On average, most people prefer an organization that provides support for boundary management. Organizations are modifying their workplaces with scheduling options and benefits to accommodate the varied needs of a diverse workforce. Employees at the SAS Institute have onsite child care, a health care and fitness center, and other firms offer perks ranging from flexible scheduling, supportive technology, required vacation time, and remote work options.208 Slalom, number three in 2021 on Glassdoor’s Top Companies for Work–Life Balance list, offers guaranteed evenings free to spend as one sees fit.209 Exhibit 18-7 lists some other initiatives over the past decade that have helped employees reduce work–life conflicts, many of which have been described in-depth in the chapter on motivation application.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 647 13/12/22 3:25 AM

648 PART 4    The Organization SystemSources: Based on “2014 100 Best Companies,” Working Mother, http://www.workingmother.com/best-company-list/156592, accessed July 21, 2015; “100 Best Companies to Work For,” CNNMoney, www.money.cnn.com, accessed June 18, 2013.Exhibit 18-7 Work–Life InitiativesTime-basedstrategiesFlextime Job sharing Leave for new parents Telecommuting Paid time offManagement consulting firm A. T. Kearney’s Success with Flex program allowsfor schedule adjusments, telecommuting, and “hybird” positions.At biopharmaceutical firm AbbVie, 98% of employees use a flextime schedule.Cisco provides job-sharing and videoconferencing facilities to minimize needs for travel away from family.Deloitte offers employees 3−6 months sabbatical at 40% salary, and they have40 paid days off per year.Information-basedstrategiesWork–life support Relocation assistance Elder care resources Counseling services Blue Cross Blue Shield of North Carolina provides networking opportunities toremote workers.Hallmark offers employees monthly meetings to talk about career managementfor women.Johnson and Johnson promotes weekends free of e-mail.Hewlett-Packard offers counselors, mentors, and $5,000 annual tuition aid.Money-based strategiesInsurance subsidies Flexible benefitsAdoption assistanceDiscounts for childcare tuition Direct financial assistance Domestic partner benefits Scholarships, tuition reimbursementAccenture offers a $5,000 adoption assistance benefit.Carlson offers employees scholarships of up to $20,000 to attend the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management.Citi employees can save up to $5,000 per year in pretax dependent careaccounts, with a match of up to 30% from the company.Colgate-Palmolive provides up to $10,000 per year in annual tuition aid for job-related courses. Prudential employees who are caregivers can use 100 hours of dependent backupcare and six hours of geriatric care management services annually.Direct services Onsite child care Fitness center Summer child care Onsite conveniences Concierge services Free or discountedcompany productsAbbott provides a child-care center that serves 800 and discounts for 2,800 daycare facilities.Companies like AOL and Verizon have onsite fitness centers and discounts atgyms nationwide.Bristol-Myers Squibb offers full-time, part-time, and backup care for kids up to age 5, and summer camps for older children.Turner Broadcasting offers a caregiver concierge to arrange babysitting, dog walking, and elder companions.REI employees can participate in a program that offers large discounts on company products.Culture-change strategies Establishing work–lifebalanced culture;training managers to helpemployees deal withwork–life conflictsTie manager pay to employee satisfactionFocus on employees’actual performance,not face timeAt American Express, employee networks have been established to address issuesdirectly.At business communication company Slack, employees are encouraged to “workhard and go home.”“W. L. Gore & Associates company slogan reads, “We do not manage people,we expect people to manage themselves.” Pearson developed a Flexible WorkOptions Accountability Guide that trains managers in the use of flextime fortheir employees.Managing Stress and HealthWhat should we do about stress? Should we do anything? Because low to moderate amounts of challenging stressors can be functional and lead to higher performance, management may not be concerned when employees experience them; however, employees are likely to perceive even low levels of stress as undesirable (or see the absence of a challenge as boring). What management considers “a positive stimulus that keeps the adrenaline running” could be very likely seen as “excessive pressure” by the employee.18-6   Describe individual and organizational approaches to managing stress at work.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 648 13/12/22 3:25 AM