Organizational Behavior, Global Edition Stephen Robbins, Timothy

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 649Regardless, stress can lead to poor outcomes that even managers should be aware of; for example, research on more than four thousand caregivers across thirty-five different hospitals suggested that during a typical twelve-hour shift without breaks, hand-washing and safety compliance were reduced by 8.7 percent.210Moreover, health and safety professionals suggest that there may be a need for management to be more hands-on. For instance, translating evidence-based health and safety innovation into practice is often glacially slow, merely presenting information without telling people what to do with it. Poor implementation has often been deemed a waste of money when done incorrectly.211 Keep this example in mind as we discuss individual and organizational approaches toward managing stress.212Individual ApproachesAn employee can effectively take personal responsibility for managing their health and stress levels through coping practices and recovery experiences. Doing so can have a downstream effect on performance, OCB, CWB, attitudes, and health at work.213 Time management techniques, physical exercise, relaxation techniques, and social support networks are individual strategies that have proven effective.214But before we proceed, it is important to note that the way you approach stress management matters: You should not necessarily be trying to actively prevent or avoid stress, but instead, you should be trying to actively recover, relax, and refresh.215 Moreover, we are not introducing these individual approaches to suggest that the onus for stress management is entirely on employees—in fact, many of these individual approaches can be facilitated and enhanced by organizational policies that support these approaches.Developing Time Management Skills Many people manage their time poorly. The well-organized employee may very well accomplish twice as much as the person who is poorly organized. For instance, research on university professors suggests that time management skills and decisions affect work–family balance, job attitudes, and performance.216 Moreover, studies on elite athletes suggest they are experts in time management who continuously revisit their commitments and adapt to new demands (even when they are already strained and fatigued).217A few of the best-known time management skills are: (1) staying organized through calendars, project management software, and to-do lists (schedule time for rest and recovery!); (2) prioritizing tasks, duties, and responsibilities (while working on [or delegating] them in order of priority); and (3) setting temporally realistic long- and short-term goals.218 On the other hand, the worst time management skills (which some people mythically associated with performing better) are (1) working faster and (2) working longer.219 Time management skills can help minimize procrastination by focusing efforts on immediate goals and boosting motivation even in the face of less enjoyable tasks.220 Furthermore, psychological techniques such as self-distancing from future stressors can help you adaptively cope with time pressure.221Focusing on Mental Wellness and Physical Fitness Physicians have recommended noncompetitive physical exercise, such as aerobics, walking, jogging, swimming, and riding a bicycle, to deal with excessive stress levels and promote physical and mental health.222 These activities decrease the detrimental physiological responses to stress and allow us to recover from stress more quickly.223 The physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral benefits may translate into better performance at work.221 Exercise can also help buffer the negative spillover effects of work–life conflict and improve work–life balance perceptions, even in the presence of poor sleep.225 Beyond its strain reduction benefits, physical exercise M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 649 13/12/22 3:25 AM

650 PART 4    The Organization Systemcan reduce the impact of others’ unethical or unfair behavior on you—and also make you less likely to be deviant yourself.226Research shows that even low-intensity activity, such as walking in a park during lunch,227 can improve moods along with other emotional benefits (even for people who doubt they will help).228 However, there is some credence to the notion of “no pain, no gain”: High-intensity exercise results in better recovery experiences (from work), reduced negative affect, and less rumination about stressors.229 Moreover, some research even suggests that physical fitness can help enhance intelligence and cognitive skills.230Many organizations offer wellness programs (which we discuss later) that promote physical fitness, but not all do. That is why employees may want to consider establishing their own self-care routines. For instance, one might involve putting on some music (which may lead to better workouts);231 powering up an electronic activity tracker (which can reduce strain and increase control perceptions);232 unwinding with some exercise, maybe even with coworkers or friends;233 and rewarding yourself to keep coming back to the activity.234However, everyone is different, and what works for one person may not work for another. Employees and supervisors must support one another and refrain from body-shaming or ostracism based on physical features.Building Resilience Resilience involves resistance to the adverse effects of stress and strain.235 Resilience is especially important as a form of preparation for crises, like working remotely during the onset of a global pandemic to the sudden immersion in armed combat.233 Although research and practice differ in how they approach resilience, a recent approach has classified resilience skills as follows: (1) emotional resilience (e.g., fostering positive emotions, developing emotion regulation skills, and facilitating social connection); (2) resilient thinking (e.g., flexible thinking, optimistic perspective); and (3) balance and recovery abilities (e.g., self-care behavior, prioritizing and balancing demands).237Outside of more extreme, stressful contexts, resilience can also be beneficial in employees’ day-to-day lives. For instance, through developing resilience, frontline employees can better cope with customer incivility and mistreatment from coworkers and supervisors.238 Employees can also learn to weather the storms of interpersonal conflict through relationship resilience, learning to cope with letdowns and disappointments in relationships, forgive one another for breaches of trust, and keep advocating for their needs without becoming defeated.239Developing resilience is possible over time through practice, coaching, and training (although its effects tend to be more temporary than other individual approaches).240 Much research has demonstrated that resilience is very similar to stress management training. It can involve exposing employees to stressors so that they become accustomed to them.241 Otherwise, it can involve teaching employees self-regulation, stress management, and emotion regulation skills.239In general, the stress management aspects of resilience training can have positive workplace outcomes, such as improved mental health and job satisfaction.243Practicing Relaxation and Mindfulness Employees can teach themselves to reduce tension through relaxation techniques such as meditation, mindfulness, and deep breathing.241 The objective is to reach a state of deep physical relaxation, focusing all your energy on releasing muscle tension.245 Deep relaxation relieves strain;246 provides a pronounced sense of peacefulness; and produces significant changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and other physiological factors.247 Indeed, research reviews on thousands of employees suggest relaxation techniques can help manage stress and reduce burnout.245resilience Resistance to the adverse effects of stress and strain.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 650 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 651Furthermore, the use of relaxation techniques during the day (and a lack of frustrating events) can help you relax when you get home—otherwise, you may have trouble doing so.249 Even very short microbreaks have been demonstrated to have an effect on employee stress relief and energy.250 You might be tempted to think that complete detachment from work, or rigid boundaries between your work and leisure life, is good; however, research suggests that those who are recovering ponderers, or who do not completely detach and ponder over problems they need to resolve at work (but still engage in relaxation activities), tend to both be engaged and experience a substantial decrease in stress.251 In other words, there may be some benefit to treating boundaries flexibly.Another technique, mindfulness—receptively paying attention to and being aware of the present moment, events, and experiences—has become popular in organizations.252 (If you are interested in trying out mindfulness approaches for yourself, see the “Experiential Exercise” in the chapter on emotions and moods.) Mindfulness has roots in traditional Buddhist meditative techniques—in fact, it is the literal translation of the Vedic word sati, or “intentness of mind.”253 Claims of the impact of mindfulness have been quite head-turning. For example, past research suggests that mindfulness can slow aging, bolster test performance, and facilitate neuroplasticity (i.e., producing actual changes in the brain).254 Moreover, there is reason to be skeptical.255 Many mindfulness studies do not agree about how they conceptualize mindfulness and do not use the best methodological practices and measures.256Proponents of mindfulness suggest that the key mechanisms responsible for its effectiveness can be found in separating oneself from the moment, decreasing the use of automatic thoughts, and increasing awareness of one’s own body.257 Moreover, forms of specialized mindfulness mediation for leaders have been suggested (which focuses on their reception, attention, and awareness to how they can improve the lives of themselves and others), with research showing that leaders can experience better relationships, inner growth, enhanced well-being, and increased productivity as a result.255 Furthermore, some people are inherently “better” at mindfulness than others and tend to be more receptive, attentive, and aware of the present moment as their “default mode.”257These individuals tend to experience more positive motivational states and job attitudes on the job, less strain, and better performance.260mindfulness Reception, attention, and awareness of the present moment, events, and experiences.Source: GRANT ROONEY PREMIUM/Alamy Stock PhotoThese office workers at Paternoster Square, London, are dealing with the impact of job stress by playing table tennis during their lunch hour.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 651 13/12/22 3:25 AM

652 PART 4 The Organization System Despite skepticism, the empirical research (outlandish linkages and claims aside) is quite promising. 261 For instance, mindfulness can help reduce unethical behavior—even without any instruction to behave ethically—because it leads people to adopt a compassionate state. 262 Reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (a gold-standard methodology used in the medical field) found that mindfulness appreciably reduced stress, anxiety, strain, psychological distress, chronic pain, depression relapse, and addiction—and improved well-being and sleep quality. 260 Through hundreds of studies, it has also been linked to many other outcomes relevant for OB, including intrinsic motivation (although it can impair immediate task motivation) 264and emotional regulation. 265 Seeking Social Support As we have noted, friends, family, or work colleagues can provide an outlet when stress levels become excessive. Expanding your social support network enables you to find someone to hear your problems and offer a more objective perspective on a stressful situation (i.e., emotional support) or help you with some of your workload (i.e., instrumental support). 266 Research suggests that both emotional and instrumental support are highly related and just as effective at influencing important workplace outcomes— 267 although An Ethical Choice Talking About Mental Health Without Overstepping Boundaries Managers have a responsibility to create an inclusive and safe environment where employees feel that they can be their authentic selves. As research shows, feeling authentic at work ultimately leads to better performance, engagement, retention, and well-being. Employees want organizations to address mental health: For example, 86 percent of individuals surveyed believe that an organization’s culture should support mental health. However, talking about mental health, particularly at work, can feel daunting. Furthermore, it is easy for a cycle to set in where employees refrain from discussing mental health at work, leading to greater stigmatization of the topic. Unfortunately, roughly 60 percent of employees have never spoken to someone at work about their mental health status. For employees to break this cycle, issues surrounding mental health should be discussed and addressed proactively. The question is how to go about discussing a sensitive topic without overstepping boundaries? Here are three practical steps: • Avoid trying to fix people. Although leaders are usually successful because they can solve difficult problems, if employees feel that you are attempting to “fix” them, your attempts to offer help may backfire. They may feel less confident and begin to question their competence. Instead, provide employees with suggested resources or simply ask the employee, “What would be most helpful for you right now?” • Discuss health holistically. It probably seems normal to discuss the headaches you have been experiencing or your seasonal allergies with your coworker. However, discussing one’s mental health is often less common. Making an effort to ask about someone’s mental health can go a long way in normalizing this topic. Sharing your own struggles can also help create a more psychologically safe environment in which your coworkers feel more comfortable being open about their own mental health. • Listen more than you talk. Active listening is not as easy as it may seem. The listening process is marred by the presence of biases, distractions, and judgments. Focus on your colleague’s experience and remember to separate it from your own. Rather than fixating on the details and how you might solve their problems, remember that you are there to support them and listen. Resist the urge to talk prescriptively . Check-the-box solutions like employee assistance programs (EAPs) are common but not enough when it comes to supporting employees’ mental health. What employees really want is a more accepting and open culture that includes clearer information about the resources they can use when they need extra support. 274M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 652 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 653who is providing support seems to make the difference (supervisors who are readily available to help are the most valuable).268Sometimes, however, this emotional support produces the opposite effect:269If you do not try to expand your network and instead ruminate with similarly stressed friends, you can get caught in a vicious cycle.270 That is why it is so important to be proactive and try to address your stress head-on. But apart from rumination, support from family, friends, or spouses who help you recover from stressful work experiences can be mutually beneficial.271 To give more effective social support to your peers and colleagues, try building others up, to help them understand their situation better and feel more capable of managing their situation.272 Moreover, some people are more receptive to “visible” social support than others (e.g., stubborn, independent people sometimes do not want to be helped despite needing it). If you can, you may be able to help them in an “invisible” way.273Organizational ApproachesSeveral organizational factors that cause stress—particularly task and role demands—are controlled by management. Strategies worth considering include job (re)design, ensuring recovery experiences, and wellness programs.(Re)designing Jobs Redesigning jobs to give employees more responsibility, more meaningful work, more autonomy, and increased feedback can reduce strain. Why? These factors give employees greater control over work activities, lessen their dependence on others, and demonstrate that the organization and its leadership care about employee well-being.275 In redesigning jobs, managers should pay attention to the specific tasks that may serve as (or preclude) stressors.276 For instance, one study of thousands of employees across multiple occupations demonstrated that jobs with irregular work schedules and conflictual contact were those most prone to bullying. Managers could provide supportive assistance to individuals in these jobs by designing some regularity in their schedules or alleviating the negative effects of the conflictual contact they experience.277 Moreover, some jobs that are boring or repetitive can be straining and harmful to performance over time—enabling some variety in what employees do (or even making jobs more “playful” or “fun”) can help solve these issues.278One way to redesign jobs is to give employees control over the nature of their jobs (i.e., job crafting; see “Myth or Science?” in the chapter on motivation applications)275 or to come to unique, idiosyncratic deals with each employee about their tasks, duties, and responsibilities.280 This control and autonomy may be an additional necessary condition for mindfulness training to positively impact stress and health at work.281 However, managers should be vigilant and ensure that employees are not accepting too many challenges that could lead to burnout.282 Another way to redesign jobs would be to permit opportunities for employee training, development, and growth. Skill-enhancing job design practices influence job satisfaction, mental well-being, and the adoption of these skills to do their jobs more effectively.283But as we noted in our discussion of work design, not all employees want enriched jobs. The right redesign for employees with a low need for growth might include less responsibility and increased specialization. If individuals prefer structure and routine, reducing skill variety should reduce uncertainties and stress levels. Moreover, the wrong type of job redesign decision can actually backfire and lead to more strain.280 For instance, giving employees more responsibility for the outcomes of their work may cause proactive employees to burn out M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 653 13/12/22 3:25 AM

654 PART 4    The Organization Systemwhile attempting to meet this “challenge.”285 Managers should closely examine the nature of any job design decisions and their effect on employees.286Enabling a Remote Work Option As we noted earlier, the COVID-19 pandemic has led dozens of companies (e.g., Box, Shopify, Nationwide) to permanently go virtual (or partially; e.g., Twitter, Facebook, Hitachi).287 Indeed, most employees indicated that they would prefer to work from home at least part of the time.288 One study applied machine learning to compare 1.56 million tweets from before and after the onset of the pandemic, suggesting that public opinion of remote work increased substantially.289Although we described the newest research and perspectives on flexible work in the chapter on motivation applications, we bring up remote work here to make a point: just like in-person work, telecommuting has its own unique set of demands and stressors. For example, many people have reported experiencing videoconference fatigue (e.g., “Zoom fatigue”) and other setbacks during the pandemic.290Earlier in this chapter, we described how remote work can lead some toward heightened work–life integration and less segmentation, leading to more stress and burnout for some people. But if we are talking about whether the pros outweigh the cons, clearly, remote work has a more positive effect on work outcomes than some might think.291 Maybe employees who struggle with remote work need to learn how to do so effectively? And maybe jobs can be redesigned and resources provided to employees so that their home and life stressors can be reduced or removed?Regardless, some people do not have the resources or skills to work remotely right away or in an effective manner. To confront the perils of excessive work–life integration in remote work, organizations should be careful when deciding to structure work and organizations so that employees are on call twenty-four hours a day: workplace telepressure can impede the effectiveness of employee recovery experiences and increase stress.288Offering Recovery Experiences All employees need an occasional escape from the frenetic pace of their work to recover from these experiences.293 However, in some countries, people perhaps do not seem to value recovery experiences as much as they should. For instance, the average American only uses about 54 percent of their available time off every year, with only 28 percent of Americans using their full vacation days.294 Of course, the pandemic has made travel an exercise in caution.295 Still, many employees do not even take “staycations,” despite their increasing popularity.296Why do some employees not use their vacation days? After all, research on people looking back on the purchases that made them happy in their lives tend to cherish their experiences more than things they bought.293 Researchers suggest several potential reasons. Apart from those who do not have the luxury of taking a vacation, many (1) feel like they cannot successfully detach (e.g., they will still have to “be on call” while away), (2) do not expect the vacation to result in positive outcomes (e.g., they will struggle relaxing or connecting with others), or (3) even expect negative outcomes (e.g., strain, negative financial impact) from taking a vacation.298Are these concerns warranted? Some research on hundreds of teachers on mid-term vacations (e.g., fall or spring breaks) found perfectionist teachers tended to have trouble fully relaxing on vacation and continued to feel emotionally exhausted, mostly due to negative spillover and taking work on vacation with them. However, perfectionist teachers realized the full benefits of the vacation if they refrained from taking work with them (and just left those papers ungraded for their vacation).299 Despite these occurrences, vacations reduce strain and result in heightened well-being. However, the effects tend to fade as the employee returns to work. Moreover, if the “back to work” workload is very high, it may be a jarring shock that leads the employee to return to pre-vacation stress levels.300M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 654 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 655Although most companies offer vacation leave, many companies, including Charles Schwab, Adobe, Intel, Epic, PayPal, Deloitte, Autodesk, Biogen, and Genentech, have begun to provide extended, voluntary leaves.301 These sabbaticals—ranging in length from a few weeks to several months—allow employees to travel, relax, or pursue personal projects that consume time beyond normal vacations. One study of university faculty members suggests that sabbaticals increase job resources and well-being, especially when they have greater autonomy in how they spend their sabbatical.298Moreover, employees from a small manufacturing company who took sabbaticals described that the sabbatical was a way for them to “find themselves” and “discover who they are,” contributing to the construction of a positive self-identity.303In general, the research suggests organizations should encourage employees to rest and recover. Also, they should encourage employees to set clear boundaries between work and life and ease the transitions surrounding vacation time and work time.Wellness Programs Our final suggestion is organizationally supported employee assistance programs (EAPs), work–life programs, or wellness programs. (Note that many have argued that these programs should be integrated and considered under the same umbrella, although there are some differences.)304 These are organizationally supported programs that focus on the employees’ total physical and mental health.305 They typically provide workshops to help people quit smoking, control alcohol use, lose weight, make healthier food and drink choices, and develop a regular exercise program.306 Some programs help employees improve their psychological health as well. Most wellness programs attempt to equip employees with what they need to take responsibility for their physical and mental health. In essence, participation in a wellness program can replenish employee resources (consistent with COR theory), leading them to start a continuous, upward trajectory of improvement.307wellness programs Organizationally supported programs that focus on the employees’ total physical and mental condition.Source: Lucky Business/ShutterstockCorporate wellness programs can help employees manage stress. As part of its wellness and fitness initiatives, the Buchanan Ingersoll & Rooney law firm (formerly Fowler White Boggs) brings in yoga instructors during employees’ lunch hours to lead them in stretching and breathing exercises that help relieve stress and promote a sense of well-being.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 655 13/12/22 3:25 AM

656 PART 4    The Organization SystemDo wellness programs work? A meta-analysis of thirty-six programs designed to reduce stress (including wellness programs) showed that interventions to help employees reframe stressful situations and use active coping strategies appreciably reduced stress levels.308 Wellness programs that help employees focus on developing the “good” kind of stress and becoming challenged through their work have also been introduced.309 Research suggests that these programs impact factors beyond stress relevant to OB, such as job satisfaction, absenteeism, and presenteeism.310 However, research also suggests that wellness programs are only effective if people use them. Employees have to see the value in the wellness program, know their supervisor supports their participation, believe that their organization supports their continued wellness and is a safe place to seek help without stigma. If they do, they can leave the program with better performance, higher job satisfaction, and lower turnover intentions.311Most firms that have introduced wellness programs have found significant benefits. Johnson & Johnson reported that its wellness program has saved the organization $250 million on health care costs in ten years, and research indicated that effective wellness programs significantly decreased turnover rates for most organizations.312 Other research sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor and Department of Health and Human Services indicated that organizational wellness programs create healthier employees with fewer health risk factors.313 Moreover, the accumulated research suggests that organizations that implement wellness programs (1) observe a $5.93 to $1.00 savings-to-cost ratio, (2) reduce health costs by 26 percent, (3) reduce workers’ compensation claims by 30 percent, and (4) observe a 28 percent reduction in sick days used.314However, as mentioned earlier, workers’ benefits from these programs appear contingent on how much they put into the program, the extent to which they participate, and their attitudes upon entering the program.315SummaryThe issues of health and stress in organizations have presented themselves as a major public crisis worldwide. As employees work themselves to the core, without respite or concern for the consequences, millions of dollars are spent in costs, productivity is lost, and more importantly, employees risk serious injury, illness, and even death. In this chapter, we described the nature of stress in organizations. More specifically, the experience of stress results in the additive exposure to stressors, and this experience of stress results in strain (e.g., physiological, psychological, and behavioral consequences). Although stressors themselves can be seen as either positive (e.g., eustress, challenges) or negative (e.g., hindrances), the experience of strain can result from both types. Importantly, the experience of stress has important implications for both physical and mental health. OB researchers and practitioners have become increasingly concerned with physical health issues in the workplace, such as employee sleep, presenteeism, and the risk factors that cause illness and injury. Mental health is also a concern, with OB researchers and practitioners focusing on job insecurity as a stressor, workaholism in the modern workforce, and psychological distress issues at work (e.g., burnout and depression). After establishing this foundation, we put the pieces together and describe four primary theories governing our understanding of stress in organizations. Then we move toward describing one especially salient topic in organizations: the issue of work–life balance. We describe whether we are really confronting a “new normal” in the way we perceive work and life, the boundaries we establish between our various life domains, and the spillover and crossover (both positive and negative) that occur between M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 656 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 657domains. Importantly, management plays a large role in facilitating employees’ strategies for managing these boundaries and domains. We close the chapter by discussing both individual and organization-level approaches to stress management in organizations, along with best practices for managing stress.Implications for Managers● Both stress and health have substantial legal, financial, and effectiveness implications—managers would do well to have a stress and health management strategy.● Resist the temptation to consider stress as uniformly a challenging, productive, “good” feeling.● Encourage employees to proactively and constructively manage their health by getting enough good quality sleep and staying home and resting when they have contagious illnesses (or if their performance could be affected).● Although job insecurity cannot be avoided, recognize its effect on employees as a stressor. Drastic cost-cutting measures like downsizing can reduce morale through its effect on job insecurity.● To reduce burnout and other psychological distress, discourage workaholism and encourage employees to focus on their health and safety as major priorities.● When addressing health issues in your organization, consider the effects that demands and resources have on the experience of strain and engagement, along with the factors that can help (e.g., control, support).● Although no one knows how work–life balance will be treated in the future, it is clear that boundaries, segmentation, integration, spillover, and crossover have major implications in the workplace. The best thing managers can do would be to provide flexibility, enrichment (when desired), and boundary management support to employees as much as they can.● Although there are several stress management approaches at organizational levels (e.g., job redesign and recovery provision), leaders and managers can play a role at all levels by establishing support systems, programs, and training that encourages employees to manage their stress levels through individual-level approaches.M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 657 13/12/22 3:25 AM

658 PART 4 The Organization System Companies Should Encourage Stress Reduction POINT Companies make substantial investments in their employees, so the health and well-being of the workforce is a central concern. One of the most direct ways to provide assistance to employees is to engage in one of the stress-reduction interventions. One major financial benefit of stress reduction programs is a reduction in health-related costs. Workplace stress leads to dozens of negative and expensive health-related consequences. Stress weakens the immune system, leading to increased illness and sick days. If employees feel extreme stress related to work, they may be more likely to come to work when they are contagious, leading to sickness for many others. Over the longer run, stress levels can also contribute to conditions like heart disease, which ultimately result in very expensive medical treatments. These medical treatments increase employer health insurance expenses. Reductions in employee stress can facilitate job performance. Employees who are overburdened have difficulty concentrating, can lose energy and motivation at work, and find it difficult to think of new and creative ideas. Stress can also create conflicts with coworkers and lead to rude or hostile treatment of clients or customers. Ultimately, employees who are experiencing high levels of stress may leave, so all the costs of turnover are incurred. Stress reduction programs also have an ethical component. The workplace generates a great deal of stress for many employees, so employers have a certain responsibility to offset its negative consequences. Stress reduction programs are a direct way to help employees feel better. When employers show concern for employees by helping reduce stress, employees feel more committed. COUNTERPOINT While employers may have a direct financial interest in certain elements of stress reduction, it is worth asking whether investing in stress reduction programs is actually a good idea. The first problem is operational. Some stress reduction interventions are expensive, requiring professional facilitators or exercise equipment. These can take a long time to show financial returns, and the up-front costs of researching, designing, and implementing them are substantial. A growing number of corporations report that the expected returns on investment in wellness programs have failed to materialize. And the time employees spend in stress reduction interventions is time they spend not working. Another problem is that stress reduction programs are invasive. Should your boss or other individuals in the workplace tell you how you are supposed to feel? Many stress reduction programs step even further into employees’ personal lives by encouraging open discussions about sources of stress. Do you really want your manager and coworkers to know why you are experiencing stress? The more that sensitive topics related to stress are discussed, the harder it is to keep work relationships professional. A final concern is that it is too hard to draw the line between stress from work and general life stress. A company’s stress reduction program may try to target problems of work overload or social conflict, but these issues often affect other areas of life. How should a stress reduction program operate when the reasons for employee stress come, say, from a sick relative or conflicts with family members? Organizations often mean well, but it may be more important to let employees keep their private lives private. 316M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 658 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 659CHAPTER REVIEWQUESTIONS FOR REVIEW18-1 How does the stress process unfold in the workplace?18-2 How do sleep, illness, and injury affect physical health at work?18-3 How do maladaptive mental health conditions manifest as a consequence of stressors at work?18-4 What are the four major stress and health theories, and how are they different?18-5 How is work–life conflict different from work–life enrichment?18-6 What are the individual and organizational approaches to managing stress at work?APPLICATION AND EMPLOYABILITYIn this chapter, you were introduced to the impact of stress and health in organizations. You learned about several techniques to manage your stress levels. Knowing how to manage your stress levels can help you become more employable because you will be equipped to manage your stress and health and perhaps perform better as a result. Also, challenging stressors and goals can help motivate you and lead to great accomplishments. If you find yourself managing people someday, you have learned various options for helping your employees manage their stress levels. In this chapter, you have improved your social responsibility skills, critical thinking, creativity, leadership, and career management skills by becoming aware of the dangers of a lack of sleep, learning how to talk about mental health without overstepping boundaries, considering how to help gig workers who are faced with job insecurity and other stressors, and debated whether companies should be involved in stress reduction efforts. In the next section, you will continue to build these skills by developing an awareness of micro-stressors in your life, considering the negative effects of presenteeism, and considering what to do when working for a company that offers healthfriendly benefits (but with a culture that discourages their use).EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE Micro-StressorsMany of us have days when we go home exhausted and end up having a restless night of sleep. While you may be able to identify what is causing your exhaustion, you may not realize that throughout the day, we often experience small amounts of stress, otherwise known as “micro-stressors,” that can together hurt our health and productivity. Unfortunately, we often accept microstressors as just part of a typical day. Although we may not acknowledge them, they are still contributing to exhaustion and may ultimately lead to burnout. The sources of these micro-stressors are usually the people (both at and outside work) with whom we are closest. The first step in resolving these sources of stress is to identify them.For this exercise, your task is to select two or three micro-stressors that consistently create the greatest amount of stress for you out of the twelve common micro-stressors shown in the chart on the following page. Then answer the questions that follow.Questions18-7. What can be done to alleviate the micro-stressors in your life?18-8. What do you think organizations can do to mitigate the micro-stressors that commonly affect employees?18-9. Did you find it helpful to use this chart to identify micro-stressors that impact your day-to-day life? Why or why not?317ETHICAL DILEMMA The Fear of Redundancy and Ceasing OperationsLeading universities in the United Kingdom (including the University of Manchester and the University of Birmingham), renowned charter and low-cost airlines in Europe (such as Monarch, Air Berlin, and easyJet), colossal banks (such as the HSBC), iconic department stores (such as British Home Stores), and the Sheffieldbased Outokumpu steel company—all have faced financial troubles and strains on their existence. As the companies M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 659 13/12/22 3:25 AM

660 PART 4    The Organization SystemRelationshipsMicro-Stressors Boss Other LeadersPeers Clients TeamLimiting your abilitiesTension with individuals can create stress when it results in extra work or limits our ability to complete the tasks we already have.Lack of alignment in roles or prioritiesIndividual not delivering reliablyUnpredictable behavior from an individual who is in a position of authorityIncrease in responsibilities at work or homeWeak communication normsDiminishing your emotional reservesStress can cause us harm when it results in negative feelings that drain our emotional reserves.Managing others and feeling responsible for their success or well-beingLack of trust in your networkPeople who cause others to be stressedConfrontational conversationsConflict with your identity or valuesInteractions that consistently challenge your values or sense of self can result in emotional exhaustion.Pressure to pursue goals that do not align with your valuesWhen someone’s actions lower your self-confidence, self-worth, or selfcontrolDivision in your networkhave struggled, so have the people who worked for them. This is because some of these companies have ceased operations and trading while others have announced massive redundancies in anticipation of economic struggle and uncertainty, political instability or industry decline, or even unexpected increases in operating costs, all of which have led to employee layoffs.In the cases of easyJet, Manchester University, Birmingham University, and Outokumpu, thousands of employees were made redundant within a short period of time. Some of these were introduced as planned and incremental changes, but most of these changes were abrupt, drastic, and rather forced, causing a shock to the workforce staff. Situations like this constitute a stressful situation for both the management and the employees, as they can challenge trust relations and jeopardize individual and group performance as well as disrupt and confuse the group dynamics in many ways. Redundancy can also impede motivation for the staff remaining in their posts and generate stress for both those being made redundant as well as those who have to pick up after the former—not an easily accepted situation for those leaving or those remaining. In the new responsibilities and the workload, the remaining staff are also left worrying about their own future. In both cases, the stress created needs to be managed in the best possible manner. Support, mentoring, and consultations are vital for enhancing the skills and knowledge required in the new state of affairs as well as enhancing employee morale. Additionally, change needs to be planned and prepared to the extent possible, rather than carrying it out abruptly and at the expense of employees.318M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 660 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Stress and Health in Organizations    CHAPTER ­1 661Questions18-10. Which were the main forces for change in the organizations presented above? How could these changes have been managed? How could the companies have resisted change?18-11. Read the introduction to Appreciative Inquiry at appreciativeinquiry.champlain.edu. How could this model be applied in the case of a redundancy period to motivate and improve performance of the remaining staff?18-12. What type of stressors could be created in a redundancy scenario, and where are these generated? Discuss how a company that is undergoing redundancy procedures can manage the stress generated for all affected parties.CASE INCIDENT Burnout Despite Flexibility: Working Parents and COVID-19In the months after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, it became apparent that the experiences of different categories of workers were very varied. One example is working parents who were forced to begin working from home. At the start of the pandemic, many governments around the world introduced lockdown policies to curb the spread of the virus such as mandatory work-from-home rules and closure of schools and child care facilities. Though it might feel like parents in office jobs should be considered lucky to be able to work from home, studies show that burnout was a huge issue for this category of employees.While working parents always had to do some work–life juggling, the prolonged closure of child care facilities and schools and the loss of family support networks due to movement restrictions meant that the demand on working parents’ time was unprecedented. In March 2020, around 1.4 billion children were out of school worldwide, and worrying reports of severe stress and anxiety among working parents began to emerge, then progressively increase. Homeschooling the children while trying to focus on a balance sheet, rocking a baby, keeping a toddler quiet during Zoom meetings, cooking extra meals, cleaning extra messes, working into the early hours to meet work deadlines—all of these, in addition to health risks and economic uncertainty, resulted in significantly higher stress. Parents reported feeling loss of control, emotional exhaustion, fatigue, and disengagement, which are all symptomatic of burnout. Mothers in particular were badly affected. UK statistics, for instance, show that they spent four more hours on child care and housework compared to fathers with the same work arrangements, a pattern shaped by the persistence of traditional gender roles. The situation was also exacerbated for those with lower incomes, limited living space, younger children, and children with special needs or additional health concerns. Research shows similar patterns of parental burnout in various European countries, the United States, Canada, Australia, as well as Asian and Middle Eastern countries, with studies conducted in India, Malaysia, Japan, and Iran.Many organizations supported parents by allowing greater flexibility of work hours and by letting parents fit their work around child care. However, flexibility often meant working late and untimely hours, resulting in physical fatigue and exhaustion. One mother said that after her children were in bed at 9.30 p.m., she would be at work on her laptop, finishing everything she couldn’t during the day, closing up at about 2 a.m. Many companies also tried to go the extra mile by offering various online wellness programs, well-being training, mindfulness and resilience sessions, online yoga, and so on. Though helpful for some categories of employees, few parents report as having taken advantage of these; as work intensity and target pressures often remained the same, this was not the best solution. Research shows that flexible work and homeworking generally increases employee productivity and satisfaction and should by all means be part of the organizational commitment to employee well-being and work–life balance. However, in the circumstances of the pandemic, flexibility of working time alone was not enough, and rethinking what may work during a crisis is crucial. Recent research also suggests that, after several years of physical disconnect from the workplace and colleagues during the pandemic, framing wellness interventions around individuals and self-care may not be as effective. Instead, focusing programs on getting team members to take care of each other and working through struggles together may be a more effective solution. This may be beneficial across many categories of workers, and for working parents in particular, because understanding and working through team members’ circumstances may increase knowledge-sharing, empathy, and team resilience (the ability and capacity of teams to respond to and cope with disruption and change in an effective and flexible manner). These kinds of approaches to well-being may remain relevant in the long term, as many international companies, such as Google and Spotify, are either contemplating or have already switched to a blend of remote and hybrid working for the foreseeable future.319Questions18-13. What types of stressors did working parents face during the COVID-19 pandemic? 18-14. Explain why working parents were more prone to increased burnout during the pandemic. Use the theories you learned in the chapter to support your answer. 18-15. Why were wellness initiatives like online yoga or resilience training and increased flexibility of work hours only marginally effective in reducing parental burnout? What else do you think organizations could have done to reduce parental burnout during crises? M18_ROBB0025_19_GE_C18.indd 661 13/12/22 3:25 AM

Appendix Research in Organizational BehaviorA number of years ago, a friend of mine was excited because he had read about the findings from a research study that finally, once and for all, resolved the question of what it takes to make it to the top in a large corporation. I doubted there was any simple answer to this question, but not wanting to dampen his enthusiasm, I asked him to tell me about what he had read. The answer, according to my friend, was participation in college athletics. To say I was skeptical of his claim is a gross understatement, so I asked him to tell me more.The study encompassed 1,700 successful senior executives at the 500 largest U.S. corporations. The researchers found that half of these executives had played varsity-level college sports.1 My friend, who happens to be good with statistics, informed me that since fewer than 2 percent of all college students participate in intercollegiate athletics, the probability of this finding occurring by mere chance is less than 1 in 10 million! He concluded his analysis by telling me that, based on this research, I should encourage my management students to get into shape and to make one of the varsity teams.My friend was somewhat perturbed when I suggested that his conclusions were likely to be flawed. These executives were all men who attended college in the 1940s and 1950s. Would his advice be meaningful to students in the twenty-first century? These executives also were not your typical college students. For the most part, they had attended elite private colleges such as Princeton and Amherst, where a large proportion of the student body participates in intercollegiate sports. And these CEOs had not necessarily played football or basketball; many had participated in golf, tennis, baseball, cross-country running, crew, rugby, and similar so-called minor sports. Moreover, maybe the researchers had confused the direction of causality. That is, maybe individuals with the motivation and ability to make it to the top of a large corporation are drawn to competitive activities like college athletics.My friend was guilty of misusing research data. Of course, he is not alone. We are all continually bombarded with reports of experiments that link certain substances to cancer in mice and surveys that show changing attitudes toward sex among college students, for example. Many of these studies are carefully designed, with great caution taken to note the implications and limitations of the findings. But some studies are poorly designed, making their conclusions at best suspect, and at worst meaningless.Rather than attempting to make you a researcher, the purpose of this appendix is to increase your awareness as a consumer of behavioral research. A knowledge of research methods will allow you to appreciate more fully the care in data collection that underlies the information and conclusions presented in this text. Moreover, an understanding of research methods will make you a more skilled evaluator of the OB studies you will encounter in business and professional journals. So, an appreciation of behavioral research is important because (1) it is the foundation on which the theories in this text are built, and (2) it will benefit you in future years when you read reports of research and attempt to assess their value.Purposes of ResearchResearch is concerned with the systematic gathering of information. Its purpose is to help us in our search for the truth. Although we will never find ultimate truth—in our case, that would be to know precisely how any person or group would behave in any organizational context—ongoing research adds to our body of OB knowledge by supporting some theories, contradicting others, and suggesting new theories to replace those that fail to gain support.Research TerminologyResearchers have their own vocabulary for communicating among themselves and with outsiders. The following briefly defines some of the more popular terms you are likely to encounter in behavioral science studies.2VariableA variable is any general characteristic that can be measured and that changes in amplitude, intensity, or both. Some examples of OB variables found in this textbook are job satisfaction, employee productivity, work stress, ability, personality, and group norms.HypothesisA tentative explanation of the relationship between two or more variables is called a hypothesis. My friend’s statement that participation in college athletics leads to a top executive position in a large corporation is an example 662Z01_ROBB0025_19_GE_APP.indd 662 13/12/22 3:28 AM

APPENDIX Research in Organizational Behavior 663of a hypothesis. Until confirmed by empirical research, a hypothesis remains only a tentative explanation.Dependent VariableA dependent variable is a response that is affected by an independent variable. In terms of the hypothesis, it is the variable that the researcher is interested in explaining. Referring back to our opening example, the dependent variable in my friend’s hypothesis was executive succession. In organizational behavior research, the most popular dependent variables are productivity, absenteeism, turnover, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.3Independent VariableAn independent variable is the presumed cause of some change in the dependent variable. Participating in varsity athletics was the independent variable in my friend’s hypothesis. Popular independent variables studied by OB researchers include intelligence, personality, job satisfaction, experience, motivation, reinforcement patterns, leadership style, reward allocations, selection methods, and organization design.You may have noticed that we said that job satisfaction is frequently used by OB researchers as both a dependent and an independent variable. This is not an error. It merely reflects that the label given to a variable depends on its place in the hypothesis. In the statement “Increases in job satisfaction lead to reduced turnover,” job satisfaction is an independent variable. However, in the statement “Increases in money lead to higher job satisfaction,” job satisfaction becomes a dependent variable.Moderating VariableA moderating variable abates the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. It might also be thought of as the contingency variable: If X (independent variable), then Y (dependent variable) will occur, but only under conditions Z (moderating variable). To translate this into a real-life example, we might say that if we increase the amount of direct supervision in the work area (X ), then there will be a change in worker productivity (Y ), but this effect will be moderated by the complexity of the tasks being performed (Z ).CausalityA hypothesis, by definition, implies a relationship. That is, it implies a presumed cause and effect. This direction of cause and effect is called causality. Changes in the independent variable are assumed to cause changes in the dependent variable. In behavioral research, however, it is possible to make an incorrect assumption of causality when relationships are found. For example, early behavioral scientists found a relationship between employee satisfaction and productivity. They concluded that a happy worker was a productive worker. Followup research has supported the relationship, but disconfirmed that high productivity leads to satisfaction rather than the other way around.Correlation CoefficientIt is one thing to know that there is a relationship between two or more variables. It is another to know the strength of that relationship. The term correlation coefficient is used to indicate that strength, and it is expressed as a number between –1.00 (a perfect negative relationship) and +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation).When two variables vary directly with one another, the correlation will be expressed as a positive number. When they vary inversely—that is, one increases as the other decreases—the correlation will be expressed as a negative number. If the two variables vary independently of each other, we say that the correlation between them is zero.For example, a researcher might survey a group of employees to determine the satisfaction of each with their job. Then, using company absenteeism reports, the researcher could correlate the job satisfaction scores against individual attendance records to determine whether employees who are more satisfied with their jobs have better attendance records than their counterparts who indicated lower job satisfaction. Let us suppose the researcher found a correlation coefficient of +0.50 between satisfaction and attendance. Would that be a strong association? There is, unfortunately, no precise numerical cutoff separating strong and weak relationships. A standard statistical test would need to be applied to determine whether the relationship was a significant one.A final point needs to be made before we move on: A correlation coefficient measures only the strength of association between two variables. A high value does not imply causality. The number of computer science doctorates and total revenue generated by arcades, for instance, have been highly correlated over the decades, but one should be careful not to infer that a causal relationship between the two exists. In this instance, the high correlation is more happenstance than predictive.TheoryThe final term we introduce in this section is theory. Theory describes a set of systematically interrelated concepts or hypotheses that purports to explain and predict phenomena. In OB, theories are also frequently referred to as models. We use the two terms interchangeably.There are no shortages of theories in OB. For instance, we have theories to describe what motivates people, the most effective leadership styles, the best way to resolve conflicts, and how people acquire power. In some cases, we have half a dozen or more separate theories that purport to explain and predict a given phenomenon. In such cases, is one right and the others wrong? No! They tend to reflect science at work—researchers testing previous theories; modifying them; and, when appropriate, proposing new models that may prove to have higher explanatory and predictive powers. Multiple theories attempting to explain common phenomena merely attest to the fact that OB is an active discipline, still growing and evolving.Z01_ROBB0025_19_GE_APP.indd 663 13/12/22 3:28 AM

664 APPENDIX Research in Organizational BehaviorEvaluating ResearchAs a potential consumer of behavioral research, you should follow the dictum of caveat emptor—let the buyer beware! In evaluating any research study, you need to ask three questions.4Is it valid? Is the study actually measuring what it claims to be measuring? A number of psychological tests have been discarded by employers in recent years because they have not been found to be valid measures of the applicants’ ability to do a given job successfully. But the validity issue is relevant to all research studies. So, if you find a study that links cohesive work teams with higher productivity, you want to know how each of these variables was measured and whether it is actually measuring what it is supposed to be measuring.Is it reliable? Reliability refers to consistency of measurement. If you were to have your height measured every day with a wooden yardstick, you would get highly reliable results. On the other hand, if you were measured each day by an elastic tape measure, there would probably be considerable disparity between your height measurements from one day to the next. Your height, of course, does not change from day to day. The variability is due to the unreliability of the measuring device. So, if a company asked a group of its employees to complete a reliable job satisfaction questionnaire and then repeat the questionnaire six months later, we would expect the results to be very similar—provided nothing changed in the interim that might significantly affect employee satisfaction.Is it generalizable? Are the results of the research study generalizable to groups of individuals other than those who participated in the original study? Be aware, for example, of the limitations that might exist in research that uses college students as subjects. Are the findings in such studies generalizable to full-time employees in real jobs? Similarly, how generalizable to the overall work population are the results from a study that assesses job stress among ten nuclear power plant engineers in the hamlet of Mahone Bay, Nova Scotia?Research DesignDoing research is an exercise in trade-offs. Richness of information typically comes with reduced generalizability. The more a researcher seeks to control for confounding variables, the less realistic their results are likely to be. High precision, generalizability, and control almost always translate into higher costs. When researchers make choices about whom they will study, where their research will be done, the methods they will use to collect data, and so on, they must make some concessions. Good research designs are not perfect, but they do carefully reflect the questions being addressed. Keep these facts in mind as we review the strengths and weaknesses of five popular research designs: case studies, field surveys, laboratory experiments, field experiments, and aggregate quantitative reviews.Case StudyYou pick up a copy of Soichiro Honda’s autobiography. In it he describes his impoverished childhood; his decisions to open a small garage, assemble motorcycles, and eventually build automobiles; and how this led to the creation of one of the largest and most successful corporations in the world. Or you are in a business class and the instructor distributes a 50-page handout covering two companies: Walmart and Target. The handout details the two firms’ histories; describes their corporate strategies, management philosophies, and merchandising plans; and includes copies of their recent balance sheets and income statements. The instructor asks the class members to read the handout, analyze the data, and determine why Walmart has been more successful than Target in recent years.Soichiro Honda’s autobiography and the Walmart and Target handouts are case studies. Drawn from reallife situations, case studies present an in-depth analysis of one setting. They are thorough descriptions, rich in details about an individual, a group, or an organization. The primary source of information in case studies is obtained through observation, occasionally backed up by interviews and a review of records and documents.Case studies have their drawbacks. They are open to the perceptual bias and subjective interpretations of the observer. The reader of a case is captive to what the observer/case writer chooses to include and exclude. Cases also trade off generalizability for depth of information and richness of detail. Because it is always dangerous to generalize from a sample of one, case studies make it difficult to prove or reject a hypothesis. On the other hand, you cannot ignore the in-depth analysis that cases often provide. They are an excellent device for initial exploratory research and for evaluating reallife problems in organizations.Field SurveyA lengthy questionnaire was created to assess the use of ethics policies, formal ethics structures, formalized activities such as ethics training, and executive involvement in ethics programs among billion-dollar corporations. The public affairs or corporate communications office of all Fortune 500 industrial firms and 500 service corporations were contacted to get the name and address of the “officer most responsible for dealing with ethics and conduct issues” in each firm. The questionnaire, with a cover letter explaining the nature of the study, was mailed to these 1,000 officers. Of the total, 254 returned a completed questionnaire, for a response rate just above 25 percent. The results of the survey found, among other things, that 77 percent had formal codes of ethics and 54 percent had a single officer specifically assigned to deal with ethics and conduct issues.5The preceding study illustrates a typical field survey. A sample of respondents (in this case, 1,000 corporate officers in the largest U.S. publicly held corporations) was selected to represent a larger group that was under examination (billion-dollar U.S. business firms). The Z01_ROBB0025_19_GE_APP.indd 664 13/12/22 3:28 AM

APPENDIX Research in Organizational Behavior 665respondents were then surveyed using a questionnaire or interviewed to collect data on specific characteristics (the content and structure of ethics programs and practices) of interest to the researchers. The standardization of response items allows for data to be easily quantified, analyzed, and summarized, and for the researchers to make inferences from the representative sample about the larger population.The field survey provides economies for doing research. It is less costly to sample a population than to obtain data from every member of that population. (There are, for instance, hundreds to thousands of U.S. firms with revenues in excess of a billion dollars; some of these are privately held and do not release financial data to the public, and they are excluded from the Fortune list.) Moreover, as the ethics study illustrates, field surveys provide an efficient way to find out how people feel about issues or how they say they behave. These data can then be easily quantified.But the field survey has a number of potential weaknesses. First, mailed questionnaires rarely obtain 100 percent returns. Low response rates call into question whether conclusions based on respondents’ answers are generalizable to nonrespondents. Second, the format is better at tapping respondents’ attitudes and perceptions than behaviors. Third, responses can suffer from social desirability, that is, people saying what they think the researcher wants to hear. Fourth, because field surveys are designed to focus on specific issues, they are a relatively poor means of acquiring depth of information. Finally, the quality of the generalizations is largely a factor of the population chosen. Responses from executives at Fortune 500 firms, for instance, tell us nothing about small- or medium-sized firms or nonprofit organizations. In summary, even a well-designed field survey trades off depth of information for breadth, generalizability, and economic efficiencies.Laboratory ExperimentThe following study is a classic example of the laboratory experiment. A researcher, Stanley Milgram, wondered how far individuals would go in following commands. If subjects were placed in the role of a teacher in a learning experiment and told by an experimenter to administer a shock to a learner each time that learner made a mistake, would the subjects follow the commands of the experimenter? Would their willingness to comply decrease as the intensity of the shock was increased?To test these hypotheses, Milgram hired a set of subjects. Each was led to believe that the experiment was to investigate the effect of punishment on memory. Their job was to act as teachers and administer punishment whenever the learner made a mistake on the learning test.Punishment was administered by an electric shock. The subject sat in front of a shock generator with 30 levels of shock—beginning at zero and progressing in 15-volt increments to a high of 450 volts. The demarcations of these positions ranged from “Slight Shock” at 15 volts to “Danger: Severe Shock” at 450 volts. To increase the realism of the experiment, the subjects received a sample shock of 45 volts and saw the learner—a pleasant, mild-mannered man about 50 years old—strapped into an “electric chair” in an adjacent room. Of course, the learner was an actor, and the electric shocks were phony, but the subjects did not know this.Taking his seat in front of the shock generator, the subject was directed to begin at the lowest shock level and to increase the shock intensity to the next level each time the learner made a mistake or failed to respond.When the test began, the shock intensity rose rapidly because the learner made many errors. The subject got verbal feedback from the learner: At 75 volts, the learner began to grunt and moan; at 150 volts, he demanded to be released from the experiment; at 180 volts, he cried out that he could no longer stand the pain; and at 300 volts, he insisted that he be let out, yelled about his heart condition, screamed, and then failed to respond to further questions.Most subjects protested and, fearful they might kill the learner if the increased shocks were to bring on a heart attack, insisted they could not go on with their job. Hesitations or protests by the subject were met by the experimenter’s statement, “You have no choice; you must go on! Your job is to punish the learner’s mistakes.” Of course, the subjects did have a choice. All they had to do was stand up and walk out.The majority of the subjects dissented. But dissension is not synonymous with disobedience. Sixty-two percent of the subjects increased the shock level to the maximum of 450 volts. The average level of shock administered by the remaining 38 percent was nearly 370 volts.6In a laboratory experiment such as that conducted by Milgram, an artificial environment is created by the researcher. Then the researcher manipulates an independent variable under controlled conditions. Finally, because all other things are held equal, the researcher is able to conclude that any change in the dependent variable is due to the manipulation or change imposed on the independent variable. Note that, because of the controlled conditions, the researcher is able to imply causation between the independent and dependent variables.The laboratory experiment trades off realism and generalizability for precision and control. It provides a high degree of control over variables and precise measurement of those variables. But findings from laboratory studies are often difficult to generalize to the real world of work. This is because the artificial laboratory rarely duplicates the intricacies and nuances of real organizations. In addition, many laboratory experiments deal with phenomena that cannot be reproduced or applied to real-life situations.Field ExperimentThe following is an example of a field experiment. The management of a large company is interested in determining the impact that a four-day workweek would have on employee absenteeism. To be more specific, management wants to know if employees working four Z01_ROBB0025_19_GE_APP.indd 665 13/12/22 3:28 AM

666 APPENDIX Research in Organizational Behaviorten-hour days have lower absence rates than similar employees working the traditional five-day week of eight hours each day. Because the company is large, it has a number of manufacturing plants that employ essentially similar workforces. Two of these are chosen for the experiment, both located in the greater Cleveland area. Obviously, it would not be appropriate to compare two similar-sized plants if one is in rural Mississippi and the other is in urban Copenhagen because factors such as national culture, transportation, and weather might be more likely to explain any differences found than changes in the number of days worked per week.In one plant, the experiment was put into place—workers began the four-day week. At the other plant, which became the control group, no changes were made in the employees’ five-day week. Absence data were gathered from the company’s records at both locations for a period of eighteen months. This extended time period lessened the possibility that any results would be distorted by the mere novelty of changes being implemented in the experimental plant. After eighteen months, management found that absenteeism had dropped by 40 percent at the experimental plant, and by only 6 percent in the control plant. Because of the design of this study, management believed that the larger drop in absences at the experimental plant was due to the introduction of the compressed workweek.The field experiment is similar to the laboratory experiment except it is conducted in a real organization. The natural setting is more realistic than the laboratory setting, and this enhances validity but hinders control. In addition, unless control groups are maintained, there can be a loss of control if extraneous forces intervene—for example, an employee strike, a major layoff, or a corporate restructuring. Maybe the greatest concern with field studies has to do with organizational selection bias. Not all organizations are going to allow outside researchers to come in and study their employees and operations. This is especially true of organizations that have serious problems. Therefore, because most published studies in OB are done by outside researchers, the selection bias might work toward the publication of studies conducted almost exclusively at successful and well-managed organizations.Our general conclusion is that, of the four research designs we have discussed to this point, the field experiment typically provides the most valid and generalizable findings and, except for its high cost, trades off the least to get the most.7Aggregate Quantitative ReviewsWhat is the overall effect of organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) on task performance? There have been a number of field experiments that have sought to throw light on this question. Unfortunately, the wide range of effects from these various studies makes it hard to generalize.To try to reconcile these diverse findings, two researchers reviewed all the empirical studies they could find on the impact of OB Mod on task performance over a twenty-year period.8 After discarding reports that had inadequate information, had nonquantitative data, or did not meet all conditions associated with principles of behavioral modification, the researchers narrowed their set to 19 studies that included data on 2,818 individuals. Using an aggregating technique called meta-analysis, the researchers were able to synthesize the studies quantitatively and to conclude that the average person’s task performance will rise from the 50th percentile to the 67th percentile after an OB Mod intervention.The OB Mod–task performance review done by these researchers illustrates the use of meta-analysis, a quantitative form of literature review that enables researchers to look at validity findings from a comprehensive set of individual studies and then to apply a formula to them to determine if they consistently produced similar results.9 If results prove to be consistent, it allows researchers to conclude more confidently that validity is generalizable. Meta-analysis is a means for overcoming the potentially imprecise interpretations of qualitative reviews and to synthesize variations in quantitative studies. In addition, the technique enables researchers to identify potential moderating variables between an independent and a dependent variable.In the past 25 years, there has been a surge in the popularity of this research method. Why? It appears to offer a more objective means for doing traditional literature reviews. Although the use of meta-analysis requires researchers to make a number of judgment calls, which can introduce a considerable amount of subjectivity into the process, there is no denying that meta-analysis reviews have now become widespread in the OB literature.Ethics in ResearchResearchers are not always tactful or candid with subjects when they do their studies. For instance, questions in field surveys may be perceived as embarrassing by respondents or as an invasion of privacy. Also, researchers in laboratory studies have been known to deceive participants about the true purpose of their experiment “because they felt deception was necessary to get honest responses.”10The “learning experiments” conducted by Stanley Milgram, which were conducted more than thirty years ago, have been widely criticized by psychologists on ethical grounds. He lied to subjects, telling them his study was investigating learning, when, in fact, he was concerned with obedience. The shock machine he used was a fake. Even the “learner” was an accomplice of Milgram’s who had been trained to act as if he were hurt and in pain. Yet ethical lapses continue. For instance, in 2001, a professor of organizational behavior at Columbia University sent out a common letter on university letterhead to 240 New York City restaurants in which he detailed how he had eaten at this restaurant with his wife in celebration of their wedding anniversary, how he had gotten food poisoning, and that he had spent Z01_ROBB0025_19_GE_APP.indd 666 13/12/22 3:28 AM

APPENDIX Research in Organizational Behavior 667the night in his bathroom throwing up.11 The letter closed with: “Although it is not my intention to file any reports with the Better Business Bureau or the Department of Health, I want you to understand what I went through in anticipation that you will respond accordingly. I await your response.” The fictitious letter was part of the professor’s study to determine how restaurants responded to complaints. But it created culinary chaos among many of the restaurant owners, managers, and chefs as they reviewed menus and produce deliveries for possibly spoiled food and questioned kitchen workers about possible lapses. A follow-up letter of apology from the university for “an egregious error in judgment by a junior faculty member” did little to offset the distress it created for those affected.Professional associations like the American Psychological Association, the American Sociological Association, and the Academy of Management have published formal guidelines for the conduct of research. Yet the ethical debate continues. On one side are those who argue that strict ethical controls can damage the scientific validity of an experiment and cripple future research. Deception, for example, is often necessary to avoid contaminating results. Moreover, proponents of minimizing ethical controls note that few subjects have been appreciably harmed by deceptive experiments. Even in Milgram’s highly manipulative experiment, only 1.3 percent of the subjects reported negative feelings about their experience. The other side of this debate focuses on the rights of participants. Those favoring strict ethical controls argue that no procedure should ever be emotionally or physically distressing to subjects, and that, as professionals, researchers are obliged to be completely honest with their subjects and to protect the subjects’ privacy at all costs.SummaryThe subject of organizational behavior is composed of a large number of theories that are research based. Research studies, when cumulatively integrated, become theories, and theories are proposed and followed by research studies designed to validate them. The concepts that make up OB, therefore, are only as valid as the research that supports them.The topics and issues in this book are for the most part research-derived. They represent the result of systematic information gathering rather than merely hunch, intuition, or opinion. This does not mean, of course, that we have all the answers to OB issues. Many require far more corroborating evidence. The generalizability of others is limited by the research methods used. But new information is being created and published at an accelerated rate. To keep up with the latest findings, we strongly encourage you to review regularly the latest research in organizational behavior. More academic work can be found in journals such as the Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Administrative Science Quarterly, Human Relations, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, and Leadership Quarterly. For more practical interpretations of OB research findings, you may want to read the California Management Review, Harvard Business Review, Organizational Dynamics, and the Sloan Management Review.Z01_ROBB0025_19_GE_APP.indd 667 13/12/22 3:28 AM

668 Comprehensive Cases Learning Goals In this case, you will have an opportunity to assess a motivational program designed to reenergize a troubled company’s workforce. Acting on behalf of the company’s executive board, you will evaluate the board’s current strategy based on survey data. You will also advise board members about improving the effectiveness of this program based on what you have learned about goal setting and motivation in organizations. Major Topic Areas • Changing nature of work • Diversity and age • Goal setting • Organizational downsizing • Organizational justice The Scenario Morgan-Moe’s drugstores are in trouble. As a major regional player in the retail industry, the company has hundreds of stores in the upper Midwest. Unfortunately, a sharp decline in the region’s manufacturing economy has put management in a serious financial bind. Revenues have been consistently dwindling. Customers spend less, and the stores have had to switch their focus to very low-margin commodities, such as milk and generic drugs, rather than the high-margin impulse-buy items that used to be the company’s bread and butter. The firm has closed several locations, reversing its expansion plans for the first time since it was incorporated. Because this is uncharted territory for the company, Jim Claussen, vice president for human relations, struggled with how to address the issue with employees. As the company’s fortune declined, he could see that employees were becoming more and more disaffected. Their job insecurity was taking a toll on their job attitudes. The company’s downsizing was big news, and the employees did not like what they were hearing. Media reports of Morgan-Moe’s store closings have focused on the lack of advance notice or communication from the company’s corporate offices, as well as the lack of severance payments for departing employees. In the absence of official information, rumors and gossip have spread like wildfire among the remaining employees. A few angry blogs developed by laid-off employees, like IHateMorganMoe.com , have made the morale and public relations picture even worse. Morgan-Moe is changing in other ways as well. The average age of its workforce is increasing rapidly. A couple of factors have contributed to this shift. First, fewer qualified young people live in the area because many families have moved away to find jobs. Second, stores have been actively encouraged to hire older workers, such as retirees looking for supplemental income. Managers are very receptive to these older workers because they are more mature, miss fewer days of work, and do not have child care responsibilities. They are also often more qualified than younger workers because they have more experience, sometimes in the managerial or executive ranks. These older workers have been a great asset to the company in troubled times, but they are especially likely to leave if things get bad. Suppose these older workers start to leave the company, taking their hard-earned experience with them. In that case, it seems likely that Morgan-Moe will sink deeper toward bankruptcy. The System Claussen was not sure how to respond to employees’ sense of hopelessness and fear until a friend gave him a book titled Man’s Search for Meaning. The book was written by a psychologist named Victor Frankl, who survived the concentration camps at Auschwitz. Frankl found that those who had a clear sense of purpose, a 1 Managing Motivation in a Difficult Economy CASEZ02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 668 13/12/22 3:31 AM

Comprehensive Cases 669reason to live, were more likely to persevere in the face of nearly unspeakable suffering. Something about this book, and its advocacy of finding meaning and direction as a way to triumph over adversity, really stuck with Claussen. He thought he might be able to apply its lessons to his workforce. He proposed a new direction for management to the company’s executive committee, and they reluctantly agreed to try his suggestions.Over the past six months, stores throughout the company have used a performance management system that, as Claussen says, “gets people to buy into the idea of performing so that they can see some real results in their stores. It is all about seeing that your work serves a broader purpose. I read about how some companies have been sharing store performance information with employees to get them to understand what their jobs really mean and participate in making changes. I thought that was something we would be able to do.”The human resources (HR) team came up with five options for the management system. Corporate allowed individual managers to choose the option they thought would work best with their employees so that managers would not feel too much like a rapid change was being forced on them. Program I is opting out of the new idea, continuing to stay the course, and providing employees with little to no information or opportunities for participation. Program II tracks employee absence and sick leave data and shares that information with individual employees, giving them feedback about things they can control. Management takes no further action. Program III tracks sales and inventory replacement rates across shifts. As in Program II, information is shared with employees, but without providing employee feedback about absence and sick leave data. Program IV, the most comprehensive, tracks the same information as Programs II and III. Managers communicate it in weekly brainstorming sessions, during which employees try to determine what they can do better in the future and make suggestions for improving store performance. Program V keeps the idea of brainstorming but does not provide employees with information about their behavior or company profits.Since implementing the system, Claussen has spoken with several managers about what motivated them to choose the program they did. Artie Washington, who chose Program IV, said, “I want to have my employees’ input on how to keep the store running smoothly. Everybody worries about their job security in this economy. Letting them know what is going on and giving them ways to change things keeps them involved.”Betty Alvarez could not disagree more. She selected Program I. “I would rather have my employees doing their jobs than going to meetings to talk about doing their jobs. That is what management is for.” Michael Ostremski, another proponent of Program I, added, “It is okay for the employees to feel a little uncertain—if they think we are in the clear, they will slack off. If they think we are in trouble, they will give up.”Cal Martins also questions the need to provide information to the whole team, but he chose Program II. “A person should know where they stand in the job, but they do not have to know about everyone else. It creates unnecessary tension.”This is somewhat similar to Cindy Ang’s reason for picking Program V. “When we have our brainstorming meetings, I learn what they [the employees] think is most pressing, not what some spreadsheet says. It gives me a better feel for what is going on in my store. Numbers count, of course, but they do not tell you everything. I was also a little worried that employees would be upset if they saw that we are not performing well.”Results to DateClaussen is convinced that the most elaborate procedure (Program IV) is the most effective. Still, not everyone in the executive committee is won over by his advocacy. Although they have supported the test implementation of the system because it appears to have relatively low costs, others on the committee want to see results. CEO Jean Masterson has asked for a complete breakdown of the performance of the various stores over the past four years. She is especially interested in seeing how sales figures and turnover rates have been affected by the new program.The company has been collecting data in spreadsheets on sales and turnover rates. It prepared the following report, which also estimates the dollar cost of staff time taken up in each method. These costs are based on the number of hours employees spend working on the program multiplied by their wage rate. Estimates of turnover, profit, and staff time are collected per store. Profit and turnover data include means and standard deviations across locations; profit is net of the monthly time cost. Turnover information refers to the percentage of employees who either quit or are terminated in a month.To see if any patterns emerged in managers’ selection of programs, the company calculated relationships between program selection and various attributes of the stores. Program I was selected most frequently by the oldest stores and those in the most economically distressed areas. Programs II and III were selected most frequently by stores in urban areas and in areas where the workforce was younger on average. Programs IV and V were selected most frequently in rural areas, especially where the workforce is older on average.Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 669 13/12/22 3:31 AM

670 Comprehensive CasesProgram MethodsNumber of StoresAverage TurnoverWeekly Profit per MonthMonthly Staff Time CostProgram I Traditional management 83 Mean = 30%SD = 10%Mean = $5,700SD = $3,000NoneProgram II Share absence and sick leave 27 Mean = 23%SD = 14%Mean = $7,000SD = $5,800$1,960Program III Share sales and inventory 35 Mean = 37%SD = 20%Mean = $11,000SD = $2,700$2,440Program IV Share information and brainstorm67 Mean = 17%SD = 20%Mean = $13,000SD = $3,400$3,420Program V Brainstorm without sharing information87 Mean = 21%SD = 12%Mean = $14,000SD = $2,400$2,750Your AssignmentYour task is to prepare a report for the company’s executive committee on the effectiveness of these programs. Make certain it is in the form of a professional business document. Your audience will not necessarily know about the organizational principles you are describing, so make sure you provide detailed explanations that someone in a real business can understand.When you write, make sure you touch on the following points:CC-1. Consider the five management systems as variables in an experiment. Identify the independent and dependent variables and explain how they are related to one another.CC-2. Based on the discussion of independent and dependent variables in the text, is there anything else you would like to measure as an outcome?CC-3. Look over the data and decide which method of management appears most effective in generating revenues and reducing turnover, and why. Which methods appear least effective, and why?CC-4. Are there any concerns you have about these data?CC-5. Does a comparison of the number of stores using each method influence your conclusions at all?CC-6. Does the fact that managers are selecting the specific program to use (including Program I, which continues the status quo) affect the inferences you can draw about program success?CC-7. What are the advantages of randomly assigning different conditions to the stores instead of using this self-selection process?CC-8. How do the changing nature of the workforce and the economy, described in your text and in the case, affect your conclusions about managing retail employees? Does the participation of a more experienced workforce help or hurt these programs? Why might these programs work differently in an economy that is not doing so poorly?CC-9. Claussen essentially designed the program on his own, with very little research into goal setting and motivation. Based on your text, how well has he done? Which parts of the program appear to fit well with research evidence on goal setting? What parts would you change to get more substantial improvements in employee motivation?CC-10. Describe the feelings that employees might have when these systems are implemented to help or hinder the program’s success. What advice would you give managers about implementing the programs, so they match the principles of organizational justice described in your text?Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 670 13/12/22 3:31 AM

Comprehensive Cases 671CASE2 Repairing Jobs That Fail to Satisfy Learning Goals Companies often divide work as a way to improve efficiency, but specialization can lead to negative consequences. DrainFlow is a company that has effectively used specialization to reduce costs relative to its competitors’ costs for years. Still, rising customer complaints suggest the firm’s strong position may be slipping. After reading the case, you will suggest some ways it can create more interesting work for employees. You will also tackle the problem of finding people qualified and ready to perform the multiple responsibilities required in these jobs. Major Topic Areas • Job design • Job satisfaction • Personality • Emotional labor The Scenario DrainFlow is a large residential and commercial plumbing maintenance firm that operates around the United States. It has been a major player in residential plumbing for decades. Its familiar rhyming motto, “When Your Drain Will Not Go, Call DrainFlow,” has been plastered on billboards since the 1960s. Lee Reynaldo has been a regional manager at DrainFlow for about two years. She used to work for a newer competing chain, Lightning Plumber, which has been drawing more and more customers from DrainFlow. Although her job at DrainFlow pays more, Reynaldo is not happy with the way things are going. She noticed that the work environment is not as vital or energetic as the environment she saw at Lightning. Reynaldo thinks that employees are not motivated to provide the type of customer service Lightning Plumber employees offer. She recently sent surveys to customers to collect performance information, and the data confirmed her fears. Although 60 percent of respondents said they were satisfied with their experience and would use DrainFlow again, 40 percent felt their experience was not good, and 30 percent said they would use a competitor the next time they had a plumbing problem. Reynaldo is wondering whether DrainFlow’s job design might be contributing to its problems in retaining customers. DrainFlow has about 2,000 employees in four basic job categories: plumbers, plumber’s assistants, order processors, and billing representatives. This structure is designed to keep costs as low as possible. Plumbers make very high wages, whereas plumber’s assistants make about one-quarter of what a licensed plumber makes. Therefore, using plumber’s assistants is a very cost-effective strategy that has enabled DrainFlow to undercut the competition easily when it comes to price. Order processors make even less than assistants but about the same as billing processors. All work is very specialized, but employees are often dependent on another job category to perform at their most efficient level. Like most plumbing companies, DrainFlow gets business mostly from the Internet. Customers either call in to describe a plumbing problem or submit an online request for plumbing services, receiving a return call with information within 24 hours. In either case, DrainFlow’s order processors listen to the customer’s description of the problem to determine whether a plumber or a plumber’s assistant should make the service call. The job is then assigned accordingly, and a service provider goes to the location. When the job has been completed, a billing representative relays the fee to the service representative via cell phone, who presents a bill to the customer for payment. Billing representatives can take customers’ credit card payments by phone or e-mail an invoice for online payment. The Problem Although specialization does cut costs significantly, Reynaldo is worried about customer dissatisfaction. According to her survey, about 25 percent of customer contacts ended in no service call because customers were confused by the order processors’ diagnostic questions and because the order processors did not have sufficient knowledge or skill to explain the situation. That means fully one in four people who call DrainFlow to hire a plumber are worse than dissatisfied: They are not customers at all! The remaining 75 percent of calls that did end in a customer service encounter resulted in other problems. The most frequent complaints Reynaldo found in the customer surveys were about response time and cost, especially when the wrong person was sent to a job. A plumber’s assistant cannot complete a more technically complicated job. The appointment has to be rescheduled, and the customer’s time and the staff’s time have been wasted. The resulting delay often caused customers in these situations to decline further contact with DrainFlow—many of them decided to go with Lightning Plumber. Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 671 13/12/22 3:31 AM

672 Comprehensive Cases“When I arrive at a job I can’t take care of,” says plumber’s assistant Jim Larson, “the customer gets ticked off. They thought they were getting a licensed plumber since they were calling for a plumber. Telling them they have to have someone else come out does not go over well.”On the other hand, when a plumber responds to a job easily handled by a plumber’s assistant, the customer is still charged at the plumber’s higher pay rate. Licensed plumber Luis Berger also does not like being in the position of giving customers bad news. “If I get called out to do something like snake a drain, the customer is not expecting a hefty bill. I’m caught between a rock and a hard place—I don’t set the rates or make the appointments, but I’m the one who gets it from the customer.” Plumbers also resent being sent to do such simple work.Ben McCarty is one of DrainFlow’s order processors. He is also frustrated when the wrong person is sent to a job but feels he and the other order processors do the best they can. “We have a survey we are supposed to follow with the calls to find out what the problem is and who needs to take the job,” he explains. “The customers don’t know that we have a standard form, so they think we can answer all their questions. Most of us don’t know any more about plumbing than the caller. If they don’t use the terms on the survey, we don’t understand what they’re talking about. A plumber would, but we are not plumbers; we just take the calls.”Customer service issues also involve the billing representatives. They are the ones who have to keep contacting customers about payment. “It’s not my fault the wrong guy was sent,” says Elizabeth Monty. “If two people went out, that’s two trips. If a plumber did the work, you pay plumber rates. Some of these customers don’t get that I didn’t take their first call, and so I get yelled at.” The billing representatives also complain that they see only the tail end of the process, so they don’t know what the original call entailed. The job is fairly impersonal and much of the work is recording customer complaints. Remember—40 percent of customers are not satisfied. The billing representatives take the brunt of their negative reactions on the phone.As you can probably tell, all employees have to engage in emotional labor, as described in this text, and many lack the skills or personality traits to complete the customer interaction component of their jobs. They are not trained to provide customer service, and they see their work mostly in technical or mechanical terms. Quite a few are actually anxious about speaking directly with customers. The office staff (order processors and billing representatives) realize customer service is part of their job. Still, they also find dealing with negative feedback from customers and coworkers taxing.A couple of years ago, a management consulting company was hired to survey DrainFlow worker attitudes. The results showed they were less satisfied than workers in other comparable jobs. The following table provides a breakdown of respondent satisfaction levels across several categories:DrainFlow PlumbersDrainFlow Plumber’s AssistantsDrainFlow Office WorkersAverage PlumberAverage Office WorkerI am satisfied with the work that I am asked to do.3.7 2.5 2.5 4.3 3.5I am satisfied with my working conditions. 3.8 2.4 3.7 4.1 4.2I am satisfied with my interactions with coworkers.3.5 3.2 2.7 3.8 3.9I am satisfied with my interactions with my supervisor.2.5 2.3 2.2 3.5 3.4Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 672 13/12/22 3:31 AM

Comprehensive Cases 673The information about average plumbers and average office workers is taken from the management consulting company’s records of other companies. They are not exactly surprising, given some of the complaints DrainFlow employees have made. Top managers at DrainFlow are worried about these results, but they have not formulated a solution. The traditional DrainFlow culture has been focused on cost containment, and employee satisfaction has not been a major issue.The Proposed SolutionThe company is in trouble, and as revenues shrink and the cost savings that were supposed to be achieved by dividing work fail to materialize, a change seems to be in order.Reynaldo is proposing using cash rewards to improve performance among employees. She thinks if employees were paid based on work outcomes, they would work harder to satisfy customers. Because it is not easy to measure how satisfied people are with the initial call-in, Reynaldo wants to give the order processors a small reward for every 20 calls successfully completed. For the hands-on work, she would like to have each billing representative collect information about customer satisfaction for each completed call. If no complaints are made, and the job is handled promptly, a moderate cash reward would be given to the plumber or plumber’s assistant. If the customer indicates real satisfaction with the service, a larger cash reward would be provided.Reynaldo also wants to find people who are a better fit with the company’s new goals. The current hiring procedure relies on unstructured interviews with each location’s general manager. Little consistency is found in how these managers choose employees. Most lack training in customer service and organizational behavior. Reynaldo thinks it would be better if hiring methods were standardized across all branches in her region to help managers identify recruits who can actually succeed in the job.Your AssignmentYour task is to prepare a report for Reynaldo on the potential effectiveness of her cash reward and structured interview programs. Make certain it is in the form of a professional business document that you would actually give to an experienced manager at this level of a fairly large corporation. Reynaldo is very smart when managing finances and running a plumbing business. Still, she will not necessarily know about the organizational behavior principles you are describing. Because any new proposals must be passed through top managers, you should also address their concerns about cost containment. You will need to make a strong, evidencebased financial case that changing the management style will benefit the company.When you write, make sure you touch on the following points:CC-11. Although employees are not especially satisfied with their work, do you think this is a reason for concern? Does research suggest satisfied workers are actually better at their jobs? Are any other behavioral outcomes associated with job satisfaction?CC-12. Using job characteristics theory, explain why the present system of job design may be contributing to employee dissatisfaction. Describe some ways you could help employees feel more satisfied with their work by redesigning their jobs.CC-13. Reynaldo has a somewhat vague idea about how to implement the cash rewards system. Describe some of the specific ways you would make the reward system work better, based on the case.CC-14. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using financial incentives in a program of this nature. What, if any, potential problems might arise if people are given money for achieving customer satisfaction goals? What other types of incentives might be considered?CC-15. Create a specific plan to assess whether the reward system is working. What are the dependent variables that should change if the system works? How will you go about measuring success?CC-16. What types of hiring recommendations would you make to find people better suited for these jobs? Which Big Five personality traits would be useful for the customer service responsibilities and emotional labor?Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 673 13/12/22 3:31 AM

674 Comprehensive CasesBuilding a Coalition CASE3Learning Goals Many of the most important organizational behavior challenges require coordinating plans and goals among groups. This case describes a multiorganizational effort, but the same principles of accommodation and compromise also apply when trying to work with multiple divisions within a single organization. You will create a blueprint for managing a complex development team’s progress to steer team members away from negative conflicts and toward productive discussion. You will also be asked to help create a new message for executives so they can lead effectively. Major Topic Areas • Group dynamics • Maximizing team performance • Organizational culture • Integrative bargaining The Scenario The Woodson Foundation, a large nonprofit social service agency, is teaming up with the public school system in Washington, DC, to improve student outcomes. There is ample room for improvement. The schools have problems with truancy, low student performance, and crime. New staff members quickly burn out as their initial enthusiasm for helping students is blunted by the harsh realities they encounter in the classroom. Turnover among new teachers is very high, and many of the best and brightest are the most likely to leave for schools that are not as troubled. The plan is to create an experimental after-school program that will combine the Woodson Foundation’s skills of raising private money and coordinating community leaders with the educational expertise of school staff. Ideally, the system will be financially self-sufficient, which is important because less money is available for schools than in the past. After several months of negotiation, the leaders of the Woodson Foundation and the school system have agreed that the best course is to develop a new agency that will draw on resources from both organizations. The Woodson Foundation will provide logistical support and program development and measurement staff; the school system will provide classrooms and teaching staff. The first stage in bringing this new plan to fruition is the formation of an executive development team. This team will span multiple functional areas and establish the operating plan for improving school performance. Its cross-organizational nature means representatives from both the Woodson Foundation and the school district must participate. The National Coalition for Parental Involvement in Education (NCPIE) will also be a major partner in the program, acting as a representative for parents on behalf of the PTA. Conflict and Agreement in the Development Team While it would be perfect if all the groups could work together easily to improve student outcomes, there is little doubt some substantive conflicts will arise. Each group has its own interests, and, in some cases, these are directly opposed to one another. School district representatives want to ensure that the new jobs will be unionized and operate consistently with current school board policies. They are very concerned that if Woodson assumes too dominant a role, the school board will not control the operations of the new system. The complexity of the school system has led to the development of a highly complex bureaucratic structure over time. Administrators want to make sure their policies and procedures will still hold for teachers in these programs, even outside the regular school day. They also worry that jobs going into the new system will take funding from other school district jobs. Woodson, founded by entrepreneur Theodore Woodson around 1910, still bears the hallmarks of its founder’s way of doing business. Woodson emphasized efficiency and experimentation in everything he did. Many of the foundation’s charities have won awards for minimizing costs while still providing excellent services. Their focus on using hard data to measure performance for all their initiatives is inconsistent with the school district culture. Finally, the NCPIE is driven by a mission to increase parental control. The organization believes that when communities can drive their own educational methods, students and parents can achieve success together. The organization is strongly committed to celebrating the diversity and inclusion of those from various backgrounds. Its members are most interested in how changes are made, ensuring that everyone can weigh in. Some demographic diversity issues complicate the team’s situation. Most of the students served by the Washington, DC, school district are Black, along with large populations of Hispanics. The NCPIE makeup generally matches the demographic diversity of the areas served by the public schools. The Woodson Foundation, Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 674 13/12/22 3:31 AM

Comprehensive Cases 675based in northern Virginia, is predominantly staffed by White professionals. There is some concern that this new group that will be so involved in this major change in educational administration does not understand the demographic concerns of the community. The leadership of the new program will have to be able to present a compelling message for generating enthusiasm for the program across diverse stakeholder groups.Although the groups differ in important ways, it is also worth considering what they have in common. All are interested in meeting the needs of students. All would like to increase student learning. The school system does benefit from anything that increases student test scores. The Woodson Foundation and NCPIE are united in their desire to see more parents engaged in the system.Candidates for the Development TeamThe development team will consist of three individuals—an HR representative from the Woodson Foundation, one from the school system, and one from the NCPIE. They have prepared the following list of potential candidates for consideration.Victoria Adams is the superintendent of schools for Washington, DC. She spearheaded the initial communication with the Woodson Foundation and has been building support among teachers and principals. She thinks the schools and the foundation need to have larger roles than the parents and communities. “Of course, we want their involvement and support, but as professionals, we should have more say when it comes to making decisions and implementing programs. We do not want to shut anyone out, but we have to be realistic about what the parents can do.”Duane Hardy has been a principal in the Washington area for more than 15 years. He also thinks the schools should have the most power. “We are the ones who work with these kids every day. I have watched class sizes get bigger, and scores and graduation rates go down. Yes, we need to fix this, but these outside groups cannot understand the limitations we are dealing with. We have the community, the politicians, the taxpayers—everyone watching what we are doing, everyone thinking they know what is best. The parents, at least, have more of a stake in this.”“The most important thing is the kids,” says second-year teacher Ari Kaufman, who is well liked by his students but does not get along well with other faculty members. He is seen as a “squeaky wheel.” “The schools need change so badly. And how did they get this way? From too little outside involvement.”Community organizer Mason Dupree does not like the level of bureaucracy either. He worries that the school’s answer to its problems is to throw more money at them. “I know these kids. I grew up in these neighborhoods. My parents knew every single teacher I had. The schools wanted our involvement then. Now all they want is our money. And I would not mind giving it to them if I thought it would be used responsibly, not spent on raises for people who have not shown they can get the job done.”Meredith Watson, with the Woodson Foundation, agrees the schools have become less focused on the families. A former teacher, she left the field of education after being in the classroom for 6 years. “There is so much waste in the system,” she complains. “Jobs are unnecessarily duplicated, change processes are needlessly convoluted. Unless you are an insider already, you can’t get anything done. These parents want to be involved. They know their kids best.”Unlike her NCPIE colleagues, Candace Sharpe thinks the schools are doing the best they can. She is a county social worker, relatively new to the DC area. “Parents say they want to be involved but then don’t follow through. Weneed to step it up. We need to lead the way. Lasting change doesn’t come from the outside; it comes from the home.”Victor Martinez has been at the Woodson Foundation for 10 years, starting as an intern straight out of college. “It’s sometimes hard to see a situation when you’re in the thick of it,” he explains. “Nobody likes to be told they’re doing something wrong, but sometimes it has to be said. We all know there are flaws in the system. We can’t keep the status quo. It just isn’t cutting it.”Strategies for the Program TeamOnce the basic membership and principles for the development team have been established, the program team would also like to develop a handbook for those who will be running the new program. Ideally, this set of principles can help train new leaders to create an inspirational message that will facilitate success. The actual content of the program and the nature of the message will be hammered out by the development team. However, it is still possible to generate some overriding principles for the program team in advance of these decisions.Your AssignmentThe Woodson Foundation, the NCPIE, and the schools have asked you to provide some information about forming teams effectively. They would like your response to explain what should be done at each step of the way, from selecting appropriate team members to setting group priorities and goals, setting deadlines, and describing effective methods for resolving conflicts that arise. After this, they would like you to prepare a short set of principles for the newly established program leaders. That means you will have two audiences: the development team, which will receive one report on how it can effectively design the program, and the program team, which will receive one report on how it can effectively lead the new program.Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 675 13/12/22 3:31 AM

676 Comprehensive CasesBoundaryless Organizations The following points should help you form a comprehensive message for the development team: CC- 17. The development team will be more effective if members have some idea about how groups and teams typically operate. Review the dominant perspectives on team formation and performance from the chapters in the text for the committee to know what to expect. CC- 18. Given the profiles of candidates for the development team, provide suggestions for who would likely be a good group member and who might be less effective in this situation. Be sure you are using the research on groups and teams in the text to defend your choices. CC- 19. Using principles from the chapters on groups and teams, describe how you will advise the team to manage conflict effectively. CC- 20. Describe how integrative negotiation strategies might achieve joint goals for the development team. The following points should help you form a message for the program team: CC- 21. Leaders of the new combined organization should have a good idea of the culture of the school district, the NCPIE, and the Woodson Foundation because they will need to manage relationships with all three groups on an ongoing basis. How would you describe the culture of these various stakeholder organizations? Use concepts from the chapter on organizational culture to describe how they differ and how they are similar. CC- 22. Consider how leaders of the new program can generate a transformational message and encourage employee and parent trust. Using material from the chapter on leadership, describe how you would advise leaders to accomplish these ends. CC- 23. Given the potential for demographic faultlines in negotiating these changes, what would you advise as a strategy for managing diversity issues for program leaders? CASE4Learning Goals The multinational organization is an increasingly common and important part of the economy. This case takes you into the world of a cutting-edge music software business seeking success across three very different national and organizational cultures. Its managers need to make important decisions about how to structure work processes so employees can be satisfied and productive doing very different tasks. Major Topic Areas • Organizational structure and boundaryless organizations • Organizational culture • Human resources • Organizational socialization The Scenario Newskool Grooves is a transnational company developing music software. The software is used to compose music, play music in clubs, and produce albums. Founder and CEO Gerd Finger is, understandably, the company’s biggest fan. “I started this company from nothing, from just me, my ideas, and my computer. I love music—love playing music, love writing programs for making music, love listening to music—and the money is nice, too.” Finger says he never wanted to work for someone else, to give away his ideas and let someone else profit from them. He wanted to keep control over them and their image. “Newskool Grooves is always ahead of the pack. In this business, if you cannot keep up, you are out. And we are the company everyone else must keep up with. Everyone knows when they get something from us, they are getting only the best and the newest.” The company headquarters are in Berlin. The headquarters are the nerve center for the organization, where new products are developed and the organizational strategy is established. Newskool outsources a great deal of its coding work to programmers in Kiev, Ukraine. Its marketing efforts are increasingly based in its Los Angeles offices. This division of labor is at least partially based on technical expertise and cost issues. The German team excels at design and production tasks. Because most of Newskool’s customers are English speakers, the Los Angeles office has been the best group to write ads and market products. The Kiev offices are filled with outstanding programmers who do not require the very high compensation rates you would find in German or US offices. The combination Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 676 13/12/22 3:31 AM

Comprehensive Cases 677of high-tech software, rapid reorganization, and outsourcing make Newskool the very definition of a boundaryless organization.Finger also makes the final decision on hiring every employee for the company and places a heavy emphasis on independent work styles. “Why would I want to put my company in the hands of people I can’t count on?” he asks with a laugh. “They have to believe in what we are doing here, really understand our direction, and be able to go with it. I’m not the babysitter; I’m not the schoolmaster handing out homework. School time is over. This is the real world.”The Work CultureEmployees want to work at this company because it is cutting edge. Newskool’s software is used by several electronic dance music (EDM) DJs, the firm’s core market, seeing it as a relatively expensive but very high-quality and innovative brand. Whenever the rest of the market for music software goes in one direction, it seems like Newskool heads in a completely different direction to keep itself separate from the pack. This strategy has tended to pay off. While competitors develop similar products and therefore need to lower their prices continually to compete with one another, Newskool has kept revenues high by creating completely new types of products that do not face this type of price competition.Unfortunately, piracy has eroded Newskool’s ability to make money with just software-based music tools. It has had to move into hardware production, such as drum machines and amplifiers that incorporate its computer technology. Making this massive market change might be challenging for some companies. Still, for an organization that reinvents itself every two or three years as Newskool does, the bigger fight is a constant war against stagnation and rigidity.The organization has a very decentralized culture. With only 115 employees, the original management philosophy of allowing all employees to participate in decision making and innovation is still the lifeblood of the company’s culture. One developer notes, “At Newskool, they want you to be part of the process. If you are a person who wants to do what you’re told at work, you’re in trouble. Most times, they can’t tell you what they want you to do next—they don’t even know what comes next! That’s why they hire creative employees, people who can try to make the next thing happen. It’s challenging, but a lot of us think it’s very much an exciting environment.”The Boundaryless EnvironmentBecause so much of the work can be performed on computers, Finger decided early to allow employees to work outside the office. The senior management in Berlin and Los Angeles are both quite happy with this arrangement. Because some marketing work does require face-to-face contact, the Los Angeles office has weekly in-person meetings. Employees who like Newskool are happiest when they can work through the night and sleep most of the day, firing up their computers to get work done at the drop of a hat. Project discussions often happen via social networking on the company’s intranet.The Kiev offices have been less eager to work with the boundaryless model. Managers say their computer programmers find working with so little structure rather uncomfortable. They are more used to the idea of a strong leadership structure and well-defined work processes.“When I started,” says one manager, “Gerd said getting in touch with him would be no problem; getting in touch with LA would be no problem. We’re small, we’re family, he said. Well, it is a problem. When I call LA, they say to wait until their meeting day. I can’t always wait until they decide to get together. I call Gerd—he says, ‘Figure it out.’ Then when I do, he says it isn’t right, and we have to start again. If he just told me in the first place, we would have done it.”Some recent events have also shaken up the company’s usual way of doing business. Developers in the corporate offices had a major communications breakdown about their hardware DJ controller, which required many hours of discussion to resolve. It seems that people who seldom met face-to-face had all made progress—but had moved in opposite directions. To test and design the company’s hardware products, employees apparently need to do more than send each other code; sometimes, they need to collaborate face to face. Some spirited disagreements have been voiced within the organization about how to move forward in this new environment.The offices are experiencing additional difficulties. Since the shift to newer products, Sandra Pelham has been more critical of the company in the Los Angeles office. “With the software, we were more limited in the kinds of advertising media we could access. So now, with the hardware—real instruments—we finally thought, ‘All right, this is something we can work with!’ We had a whole slate of musicians and DJs and producers to contact for endorsements, but Gerd said, ‘No way.’ He did not want customers who only cared that a celebrity liked us. He scrapped the whole campaign. He says we are all about creativity and doing our own thing—until we do not want to do things his way.”Although the organization is not without problems, there is little question Newskool has been a standout success in the computer music software industry. While many are shuttering their operations, Newskool uses its market power to push forward the next generation of electronic music-making tools. As Gerd Finger puts it, “Once the rest of the industry has gotten together and figured out how they are all going to cope with change, they will look around and see that we’re already three miles ahead of them down the road to the future.”Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 677 13/12/22 3:31 AM

678 Comprehensive CasesThe Stress of Caring Your Assignment Finger has asked for your advice on how to keep his organization successful. He wants to benchmark how other boundaryless organizations in the tech sector stay competitive despite the challenge of so many workers heading in so many different directions. You will need to prepare a report for the company’s executive committee. Your report should read like a proposal to a corporate executive who has a great deal of knowledge about the technical aspects of their company but might not have much knowledge of organizational behavior. When you write, make sure you touch on the following points: CC- 24. Identify some of the problems likely to occur in a boundaryless organization like Newskool Grooves. What are the advantages of boundaryless organizations? CC- 25. Consider some of the cultural issues that will affect a company operating in such different parts of the world and whose employees may not represent the national cultures of each country. Are the conflicts you observe a function of the different types of work people have to perform? CC- 26. Based on what you know about motivation and personality, what types of people are likely to be satisfied in each area of the company? Use concepts from job characteristics theory and the emerging social relationships perspective to describe what might need to change to increase employee satisfaction in all areas. CC- 27. What types of human resources practices need to be implemented in this sort of organization? What principles of selection and hiring are likely to be effective? Which Big Five traits and abilities might Newskool supervisors want to use for selection? CC- 28. What kind of performance measures might you want to see for each office? CC- 29. How can the company establish a socialization program that will maximize employee creativity and independence? Do employees in all its locations need equal levels of creativity? CASE5Learning Goals One of the most consistent changes in work structure over the past few decades has been a shift from a manufacturing economy to a service economy. More workers are now engaged in jobs that include providing care and assistance, especially in education and medicine. This work is satisfying for some people, but it can also be highly stressful. In the following scenario, consider how a company in the nursing care industry responds to the challenges of the new environment. Major Topic Areas • Stress • Organizational change • Emotions • Leadership The Scenario Parkway Nursing Care is an organization facing a massive change. The company was founded in 1982 with just two nursing homes in Phoenix, Arizona. The company was very successful, and throughout the 1990s, it continued to turn a consistent profit while slowly acquiring or building 30 more units. This low-profile approach changed forever in 2003 when venture capitalist Robert Quine decided to make a major investment in expanding Parkway in return for a portion of its profits over the coming years. The number of nursing homes exploded, and Parkway was operating 180 homes by the year 2010. The company now has 220 facilities in the southwestern United States, with an average of 115 beds per facility and a total of nearly 30,000 employees. In addition to health care facilities, it also provides skilled in-home nursing care. Parkway is seen as one of the best care facilities in the region, and it has won numerous awards for its achievements in the field. As members of the baby boom generation become senior citizens, the need for skilled care will only increase. Parkway wants to make sure it is in a good position to meet this growing need. This means the company must continue expanding rapidly. The pressure for growth is one significant challenge, but it is not the only one. The nursing home industry has come under increased government scrutiny following investigations that turned up widespread patient abuse and billing fraud. Parkway has always had outstanding patient care. No substantiated claim of abuse or neglect in any of its homes has ever been Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 678 13/12/22 3:31 AM

Comprehensive Cases 679made. However, the need for increased documentation will still affect the company. As the federal government tries to trim Medicare expenses, Parkway may face a reduction in funding.The ProblemAs growth continues, Parkway has remained committed to maintaining the dignity and health of all residents in its facilities. The board of directors wants to see a renewed commitment to the firm’s mission and core values, not a diffusion of its culture. Its members are worried there might be problems to address. Interviews with employees suggest there is plenty to worry about.Shift leader Maxine Vernon has been with Parkway for 15 years. “Now that the government keeps a closer eye on our staffing levels, I’ve seen management do what it can to keep positions filled, and I don’t always agree with who is hired. Some of the basic job skills can be taught, sure, but how to carefor our patients—a lot of these new kids just don’t pick up on that.”“The problem isn’t with staff—it’s with Parkway’s focus on filling the beds,” says nurse’s aide Bobby Reed. “When I started here, Parkway’s reputation was still about the service. Now it’s about numbers. No one is intentionally negligent—there just are too many patients to see.”A recent college graduate with a BA in psychology, Dalton Manetti is more stressed than he expected. “These aren’t the sweet grannies you see in the movies. Our patients are demanding. They complain about everything, even about being called patients, probably because most of them think they shouldn’t be here in the first place. A lot of times, their gripes amount to nothing, but we have to log them in anyway.”Carmen Frank has been with Parkway for almost a year and is already considering finding a new job. “I knew there were going to be physical parts to this job, and I thought I’d be able to handle that. It’s not like I was looking for a desk job, you know? After every shift, I go home with aches all over—my back, arms, and legs. I’ve never had to take so much time off from a job because I hurt. And then when I come back, I feel like the rest of the staff thinks I’m weak.”YearNumber of PatientsInjuries per Staff MemberIncidents per PatientCertified Absences per Staff MemberOther Absences per Staff MemberTurnover Rate2010 21,200 3.32 4.98 4.55 3.14 0.312011 22,300 3.97 5.37 5.09 3.31 0.292012 22,600 4.87 5.92 4.71 3.47 0.282013 23,100 4.10 6.36 5.11 3.61 0.352014 23,300 4.21 6.87 5.66 4.03 0.312015 23,450 5.03 7.36 5.33 3.45 0.282016 23,600 5.84 7.88 5.28 4.24 0.362017 24,500 5.62 8.35 5.86 4.06 0.332018 24,100 7.12 8.84 5.63 3.89 0.352019 25,300 6.95 9.34 6.11 4.28 0.35“I started working here right out of high school because it was the best-paid of the jobs I could get,” says Niecey Wilson. “I had no idea what I was getting myself into. Now I really like my job. Next year I’m going to start taking some night classes so I can move into another position. But some of the staff just think of this as any other job. They don’t see the patients as people, more like inventory. If they want to work with inventory, they should get a job in retail.”Last month, the company’s human resources department pulled the above information from its records at the board of directors’ request. The numbers provide some quantitative support for the concerns voiced by staff.Injuries to staff occur mostly because of back strain from lifting patients. Patient incidents reflect injuries due to slips, falls, medication errors, or other accidents. Certified absences are days off from work due to medically verified illnesses or injuries. Other absences are days missed that are not due to injuries or illnesses; these are excused absences (unexcused absences are grounds for immediate firing).Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 679 13/12/22 3:31 AM

680 Comprehensive CasesUsing Organizational Development to Combat Stress and Improve PerformanceThe company wants to use organizational development methods such as appreciative inquiry (AI) to create change and re-energize its sense of mission. As the chapter on organizational change explains, AI procedures systematically collect employee input and then use this information to create a change message everyone can support. The human resources department conducted focus groups, asking employees to describe their concerns and suggestions for the future. The focus groups highlighted many suggestions, although they do not all suggest movement in the same direction.Many suggestions concerned schedule flexibility. One representative comment was this: “Most of the stress on this job comes because we can’t take time off when we need it. The LPNs [licensed practical nurses, who do much of the care] and orderlies can’t take time off when they need to. Still, many of them are single parents or primary caregivers for their own children. When they have to leave for child care responsibilities, the work suffers, and there’s no contingency plan to help smooth things over. Then everyone who is left has to work extra hard. The person who takes time off feels guilty, and there can be fights over taking time off. If we had some way of covering these emergency absences, we’d all be a lot happier, and I think the care would be a lot better.”Other suggestions proposed better methods for communicating information across shifts. Most of the documentation for shift work is done in large spiral notebooks. When a new shift begins, staff members say they don’t have much time to check on what happened in the previous shift. Some younger caregivers would like to have a method that lets them document patient outcomes electronically because they type faster than they can write. The older caregivers are more committed to the paperbased process, in part because they think switching systems would require a lot of work. (Government regulations on health care reporting require that any documentation be made in a form that cannot be altered after the fact to prevent covering up abuse, so specialized software systems must be used for electronic documentation.)Finally, the nursing care staff believes its perspectives on patient care are seldom given an appropriate hearing. “We’re the ones who are with the patients most of the time, but when it comes to doing this the right way, our point of view gets lost. We really could save a lot of money by eliminating some of these unnecessary routines and programs. Still, it’s something management always just says it will consider.”Staff members seem to want some way to provide suggestions for improvement, but it is unclear what method they would prefer.Your AssignmentParkway has taken some initial steps in this new direction, but clearly, it has a lot of work left to do. As a change management consultant, you have been brought in to help the company change its culture and respond to the stress that employees experience. Remember to create your report as if it is for the leadership of a major corporation.When you write your recommendations, make sure you touch on the following points:CC-30. What do the data on employee injuries, incidents, absences, and turnover suggest to you? Is there a reason for concern about the company’s direction?CC-31. The company will be making some significant changes based on the AI process, and most change efforts are associated with resistance. What are the most common forms of resistance, and which would you expect to see at Parkway?CC-32. Given the board of directors’ desire to re-energize the workforce, what advice would you provide for creating a leadership strategy? What leader behaviors should nursing home directors and nurse supervisors demonstrate?CC-33. What are the major sources of job stress at Parkway? What does the research on employee stress suggest you should do to help minimize the experience of psychological strain for employees? Create a plan for how to reduce stress among employees.CC-34. Based on the information collected in the focus groups, design a survey to hand out to employees. What sort of data should the survey gather? What types of data analysis methods would you like to employ for these data?Z02_ROBB0025_19_GE_CASE.indd 680 13/12/22 3:31 AM

Glossaryability An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.abusive supervision Supervision that is hostile both verbally and nonverbally.accommodating The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent’s interests above their own.action research A change process based on systematic collection of data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate.affect A term used to describe a broad range of feelings that people experience, including emotions and moods.affect intensity Individual differences in the strength with which individuals experience their emotions.affective component The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.affective events theory (AET) A model suggesting that workplace events cause emotional reactions on the part of employees, which then influence workplace attitudes and behaviors.agreeableness A personality dimension that describes someone who is good natured, cooperative, and trusting.allostasis Working to change behavior and attitudes to find stability.anchoring bias A tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adjust adequately for subsequent information.anthropology The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.applicant attraction The degree to which an individual is drawn toward an organization, intends to apply for a job at that organization, and would accept a job offer there if given one.appreciative inquiry An approach that seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an organization, which can then be built on to improve performance.arbitrator A third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement.assessment centers Off-site locations where candidates are given a set of performance-simulation tests designed to evaluate their managerial potential.asynchronous communication Communication episodes in which messages are received outside of a physically or psychologically present communication exchange.attitudes Judgments or evaluative statements about objects, people, or events.attribution theory An attempt to explain the ways we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a behavior, such as determining whether an individual’s behavior is internally or externally caused.attribution theory of leadership A leadership theory stating that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals.authentic leaders A leadership style in which leaders “know who they are” (i.e., self-awareness), are anchored by their mission, consider others’ opinions and all relevant information before acting, and display their true selves when interacting with employees.authority The rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders and to expect the orders to be obeyed.automatic processing A relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information that takes little time or effort and makes use of heuristics.autonomy The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.availability bias The tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them.avoiding The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict.BATNA The best alternative to a negotiated agreement; the least a party in a negotiation should accept.behavioral component An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.behavioral ethics Analyzing why people behave the way they do when confronted with ethical dilemmas.behavioral theories of leadership Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) Scales that combine major elements from the critical incident and graphic rating scale approaches. The appraiser rates employees based on items along a continuum, but the points are examples of actual behavior on the given job rather than general descriptions or traits.behaviorism A theory stating that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.Big Five Model A personality model that proposes five basic dimensions encompass most of the differences in human personality.biographical characteristics Personal characteristics—such as age, gender, race, and ethnicity—that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These characteristics are representative of surface-level diversity.bonus A pay plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical performance.boundary spanning Individuals forming relationships outside their formally assigned groups.bounded rationality A simplified process of making decisions by perceiving and interpreting the essential features of problems without capturing their complexity.brainstorming An idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives while withholding any criticism of those alternatives.bureaucracy An organizational structure with highly routine operating tasks achieved through specialization, very formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are grouped into functional departments, centralized authority, narrow spans of control, and decision making that follows the chain of command.burnout A work-related mental health syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment.centralization The degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in an organization.681Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 681 13/12/22 3:34 AM

682 Glossarychain of command The unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom.challenge stressors Stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, and time urgency.change When things become different than the way they were.change agents People who act as catalysts and assume the responsibility for managing change activities.channel richness The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode.charismatic leadership theory A leadership theory stating that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors (e.g., those that are values-driven, symbolic, or emotional).circular structure An organizational structure in which executives are at the center, spreading their vision outward in rings grouped by function (managers, then specialists, then workers).citizenship Actions that contribute to the psychological environment of the organization, such as helping others when not required.coercive power A power base that depends on fear of the negative results from failing to comply.cognitive component The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.cognitive dissonance Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.cognitive evaluation theory A sub-theory of self-determination theory in which extrinsic rewards for behavior tend to decrease the overall level of motivation, if the rewards are seen as controlling or reduce their sense of competence.cohesion The shared bond driving group members to work together and stay in the group.collaborating A situation in which the parties involved in a conflict all desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all parties.collectivism A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.common ingroup identity The idea that bias can be reduced and inclusion can be fostered by transforming workers’ focus on what divides them (e.g., “us” and “them”) to what unites them (e.g., “we”).communication The transfer and the understanding of meaning.communication apprehension Undue tension and anxiety about communication.competing A desire to satisfy one’s interests, regardless of the impact on the other party to the conflict.compromising A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something to resolve the conflict.conceptual skills The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations.conciliator A trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the negotiation partner.confirmation bias The tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgments.conflict A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about.conflict management The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict.conformity The adjustment of one’s behavior to align with the norms of the group.conscientiousness A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.consideration The extent to which a leader has job relationships that are characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’ ideas, and regard for their feelings.contact hypothesis The idea that the more people from diverse backgrounds interact with one another, the more prejudice and discrimination between the groups will decrease over time.contingency variables Situational factors or variables that moderate the relationship between two or more variables.contingent selection Methods used as final checks for candidates who passed substantive selection before giving them an employment offer.contrast effect Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.controlled processing A detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic.controlling Monitoring activities to ensure that they are being accomplished as planned and correcting any significant deviations.core self-evaluation (CSE) Bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person.core values The primary or dominant values that are accepted throughout the organization.corporate social responsibility (CSR) An organization’s selfregulated actions to benefit society or the environment beyond what is required by law.cost-minimization strategy A strategy that emphasizes tight cost controls, avoidance of unnecessary innovation or marketing expenses, and price cutting.counterproductive work behavior (CWB) Actions that actively damage the organization, including stealing, behaving aggressively toward coworkers, or being late or absent.creativity The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.critical incidents A way of evaluating an employee’s behaviors that are key in making the difference between executing a job effectively and executing it ineffectively.cross-functional team A team of employees from about the same hierarchical level but from different work areas who come together to accomplish a task.cultural intelligence (CQ) A worker’s ability to effectively function in culturally diverse settings and situations.cultural tightness-looseness The degree to which there are clear, pervasive norms within societies, a clear understanding of sanctions for violating those norms, and no tolerance for deviating from those norms.Dark Triad A constellation of negative personality traits consisting of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy.decisions Choices made from among two or more alternatives.deep acting Trying to modify one’s true feelings based on display rules.Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 682 13/12/22 3:34 AM

Glossary 683deep-level diversity Differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another better.defensive behaviors Reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change in a political environment.demands Responsibilities, pressures, obligations, and even uncertainties that individuals face in the workplace.demography The degree to which members of a work unit share a common demographic attribute, such as age, gender identity, race, educational level, or organizational tenure.deonance A perspective in which ethical decisions are made because you “ought to” in order to be consistent with moral norms, principles, standards, rules, or laws.departmentalization The basis by which jobs in an organization are grouped together.dependence B’s relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires.deviant workplace behavior Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. Also called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility.discrimination Actions or behaviors that create, maintain, or reinforce some groups’ advantages over other groups and their members.disparate impact When employment practices have an unintentional discriminatory effect on a legally protected group of people.disparate treatment When employment practices have an intentional discriminatory effect on a legally protected group of people.displayed emotions Emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job.distributive bargaining Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win–lose situation.distributive justice Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.diversity The extent to which members of a group are similar to, or different from, one another.diversity climate The shared perceptions of diversityenhancing policies, practices, and procedures among members of an organization.diversity culture The shared diversity values, prioritization of diversity, and belief that it should be fostered by members of an organization.diversity management The use of evidence-based strategies to manage and leverage the inherent diversity of the workforce.divisional structure An organizational structure that groups employees into units by product, service, customer, or geographical market area.dominant culture A culture that expresses the core values that are shared by most of the organization’s members.downsizing A systematic effort to make an organization leaner by closing locations, reducing staff, or selling off business units that do not add value.driving forces Forces that direct behavior away from the status quo.dyadic conflict Conflict that occurs between two people.dysfunctional conflict Conflict that hinders group performance.effectiveness The degree to which an organization meets the needs of its clientele or customers.efficiency The degree to which an organization can achieve its ends at a low cost.emotional contagion The process by which people’s emotions are caused by the emotions of others.emotional dissonance Inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project.emotional intelligence (EI) The ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information.emotional labor An employee’s organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work.emotional stability A personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, and secure (positive) versus nervous, anxious, and insecure (negative).emotion regulation The process of identifying and modifying felt emotions.emotions Intense, discrete, and short-lived feeling experiences, often caused by a specific event.employee engagement The degree of enthusiasm an employee feels for the job.employee involvement and participation (EIP) A participative process that uses the input of employees to increase employee commitment to organizational success.employee recognition program A plan to encourage specific employee behaviors by formally appreciating specific employee contributions.employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) A company-established benefits plan in which employees acquire stock, often at belowmarket prices, as part of their benefits.encounter stage The stage in the socialization process in which a new employee sees what the organization is really like and confronts the possibility that expectations and reality may diverge.environment Forces outside an organization that potentially affect the organization’s structure.equity Striving to provide access to the same opportunities for all workers, recognizing that some people are afforded privileges while others are confronted with barriers.equity theory A theory stating that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.escalation of commitment An increased commitment to a previous decision despite negative information.ethical culture The shared concept of right and wrong behavior in the workplace that reflects the true values of the organization and shapes the ethical decision making of its members.ethical dilemmas and ethical choices Situations in which individuals are required to define right and wrong conduct.eustress A healthy, positive, and constructive appraisal of stressors.evidence-based management (EBM) Basing managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence.exit Dissatisfaction expressed through behavior directed toward leaving the organization.expatriate A person who works outside their native country.Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 683 13/12/22 3:34 AM

684 Glossaryexpectancy theory A theory that suggests the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.expert power Influence based on expertise, special skills, or knowledge.extroversion A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive.faultlines The perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences such as gender, race, and age.feedback The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of their performance.felt conflict Emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility.felt emotions An individual’s actual emotions.femininity A national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society.Fiedler contingency model The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.fixed pie The belief that there is only a set amount of goods or services to be divvied up between the parties.flexible benefits A benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits package tailored to their own needs and situation.flextime Flexible work hours.followership The capability of followers to put into practice a leader’s vision or set of goals.forced comparison Method of performance evaluation where an employee’s performance is made in explicit comparison to others (e.g., an employee may rank third out of 10 employees in their work unit).formal group A designated work group defined by an organization’s structure.formalization The degree to which jobs within an organization are standardized.full range leadership model A model that suggests that there are a number of approaches or styles of leadership (i.e., transactional, transformational) which vary on a continuum from passive and ineffective to active and effective.functional conflict Conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance.functional structure An organizational structure that groups employees by their similar specialties, roles, or tasks.fundamental attribution error The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.gender identity People’s deeply held sense of or identification with their own gender that does not necessarily match their sex at birth, is not visible to others, and cannot be neatly categorized.general mental ability (GMA) An overall factor of intelligence, as suggested by the positive correlations among specific intellectual ability dimensions.globalization The process in which worldwide integration and interdependence is promoted across national borders.goal-setting theory A theory that intentions to work toward a goal are considered a major source of work motivation and lead to higher performance.grapevine An organization’s informal communication network.graphic rating scale An evaluation method in which the evaluator rates performance factors on an incremental scale.group Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.group order ranking An evaluation method that places employees into a particular classification, such as quartiles.groupshift A change between a group’s decision and an individual decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk, but it generally is toward a more extreme version of the group’s original position.groupthink A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.halo effect The tendency to draw a positive general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic.heredity Factors determined at conception; one’s biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup.hierarchy of needs Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.high-context cultures Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle cues in communication.high-performance work system (HPWS) A group of human resources practices that work together and reinforce one another to improve organizational outcomes.hindrance stressors Stressors that keep you from reaching your goals, for example, red tape, office politics, and confusion over job responsibilities.hindsight bias The tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is known, that one would have accurately predicted that outcome.horns effect The tendency to draw a negative general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic.human capital resources The capacities of a work unit derived from the collective knowledge, skills, abilities, and other resources of the organization’s workforce.hygiene factors Factors—such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers and limit job dissatisfaction.idea champions Individuals who take an innovation and actively and enthusiastically promote the idea, build support, overcome resistance, and ensure that the idea is implemented.idea evaluation The process of creative behavior involving the evaluation of potential solutions to problems to identify the best one.idea generation The process of creative behavior that involves developing possible solutions to a problem from relevant information and knowledge.illusory correlation The tendency of people to associate two events when in reality there is no connection.Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 684 13/12/22 3:34 AM

Glossary 685imitation strategy A strategy that seeks to move into new products or new markets only after their viability has already been proven.implicit bias Prejudice that may be hidden outside one’s conscious awareness.impression management (IM) The process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions that others form of them.inclusion Creating an environment where all people feel valued, welcomed, and included.individual ranking An evaluation method that rank-orders employees from best to worst.individualism A national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups.influence tactics Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.informal group A group that is not defined by an organization’s structure; such a group appears in response to other needs, such as social clubs or interest groups.information gathering The stage of creative behavior when possible solutions to a problem incubate in an individual’s mind.information overload A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity.informational justice The degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions.initial selection Methods used to make preliminary rough cuts of initial applicants to decide whether they meet the basic qualifications for a job.initiating structure The extent to which a leader defines and structures their role and those of their followers to facilitate goal attainment.innovation An idea or solution judged to be novel and useful by relevant stakeholders.innovation strategy A strategy that emphasizes the introduction of major new products and services.inputs Variables like personality, group structure, and organizational culture that lead to processes.institutions Cultural factors, especially those factors that might not lead to adaptive consequences, that lead many organizations to have similar structures.instrumental values Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values.integrative bargaining Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win–win solution.intellectual abilities The capacity to do mental activities—thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.interacting groups Typical groups in which members interact with each other, relying on both verbal and nonverbal communication.intergroup conflict Conflict between different groups or teams.intergroup development Organizational development (OD) efforts to change the attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions that groups have of each other.interpersonal justice The degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect.interrole conflict A situation in which the expectations of an individual’s different, separate groups are in opposition.intersectionality The idea that identities interact to form different meanings and experiences.intractable problem A problem that may change entirely or become irrelevant before we finish the process of organizing our thoughts, gathering information, analyzing the information, and making judgments or decisions.intragroup conflict Conflict that occurs within a group or team.intuition An instinctive feeling not necessarily supported by research.intuitive decision making An unconscious process created out of distilled experience.job characteristics model (JCM) A model proposing that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.job design The way the elements in a job are organized.job engagement The investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.job enrichment Adding high-level responsibilities to a job to increase intrinsic motivation.job insecurity The perception that one’s job is at risk or that one’s employment is not stable.job involvement The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth.job performance The total value of a workers’ contributions to an organization through their behaviors over a period of time.job rotation The periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another.job satisfaction A positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics.job sharing An arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional full-time job.laissez-faire leadership A leadership style involving passive abdication and avoidance of leadership responsibilities.leader–member exchange (LMX) theory A theory that suggests (1) leaders and followers have unique relationships that vary in quality and (2) these followers comprise ingroups and outgroups; subordinates with ingroup status will likely have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.leader–member relations The degree of confidence, trust, and respect that subordinates have in their leader.leader–participation model A theory that suggests leaders should determine the extent to which leadership problems involve participation and shared responsibility with followers (and adjust accordingly).leadership The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals.leading A function that includes motivating employees, directing others, selecting the most effective communication channels, and resolving conflicts.learning organization An organization that has developed the continuous capacity to adapt and change.legitimate power Power based on a person’s position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.long-term orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 685 13/12/22 3:34 AM

686 Glossarylow-context cultures Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.loyalty Dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve.Machiavellianism The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.management by objectives (MBO) A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.manager An individual who achieves goals through other people.masculinity A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism.material symbols Physical objects, or artifacts, that symbolize values, beliefs, or assumptions inherent in the organization’s culture.matrix structure An organizational structure that creates dual lines of authority and combines functional and product departmentalization.McClelland’s theory of needs A theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation.mechanistic model A structure characterized by extensive departmentalization, high formalization, a limited information network, and centralization.mediator A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives.mental model Team members’ shared knowledge about the key elements within their task environment.mentor A senior employee who sponsors and supports a lessexperienced employee, called a protégé.merit-based pay plan A pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings.metamorphosis stage The stage in the socialization process in which a new employee changes and adjusts to the job, work group, and organization.microaggressions Automatic, subtle, stunning exchanges between people that negatively impact those with minority or marginalized backgrounds.mindfulness Reception, attention, and awareness of the present moment, events, and experiences.model An abstraction of reality, a simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon.moods Feelings that tend to be longer-lived and less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.moral emotions Emotions that have moral implications because of our instant judgment of the situation that evokes them.motivating potential score (MPS) A predictive index that reflects the motivating potential in a job.motivation The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.multiteam system A collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal; a team of teams.Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into one of sixteen personality types.narcissism The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration, and possess a sense of entitlement.need for achievement (nAch) The need to excel or achieve to a set of standards.need for affiliation (nAff) The need to establish friendly and close interpersonal relationships.need for autonomy The need to feel in control and autonomous at work.need for cognition A personality trait of individuals depicting the ongoing desire to think and learn.need for competence The need to feel like we are good at what we do or proud of it.need for power (nPow) The need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise.negative affect An affective dimension that consists of emotions such as nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end.neglect Dissatisfaction expressed through allowing conditions to worsen.negotiation A process in which two or more parties communicate and confer with one another to come to a mutual agreement on the exchange of goods or services.neutralizers Attributes that make it impossible for leader behavior to make any difference to follower outcomes.nominal group technique A group decision-making method in which members meet to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion.norms Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s members.openness to experience A personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imagination, artistic sensitivity, and curiosity.organic model A structure that is flat, uses cross-hierarchical and cross-functional teams, has low formalization, possesses a comprehensive information network, and relies on participative decision making.organization A consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.organizational behavior (OB) A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness.organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) Discretionary behavior that contributes to the psychological and social environment of the workplace.organizational climate The shared perceptions that organizational members have about their organization and work environment; particularly, the policies, practices, and procedures that are in place.organizational commitment The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.organizational culture A system of shared meaning held by an organization’s members that distinguishes the organization from others. This system is characterized by values, beliefs, and underlying assumptions.Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 686 13/12/22 3:34 AM

Glossary 687organizational development (OD) A collection of planned change interventions, built on humanistic–democratic values, that seeks to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being.organizational identification The extent to which employees define themselves by the same characteristics that define their organization.organizational justice An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice.organizational structure The way in which job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated.organizational survival The degree to which an organization can exist and grow over the long term.organizing Determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made.outcome bias The tendency to judge the quality of a decision based on the desirability or believability of its outcome.outcomes Key factors that are affected by other variables.overconfidence bias A tendency to be overconfident about our own abilities or the abilities of others.panel interviews Structured interviews conducted with a candidate and a number of panel members in a joint meeting.paradox theory The theory that the key paradox in management is that there is no final optimal status for an organization.participative management A process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors.path–goal theory A theory stating that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.people skills The ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in groups.perceived conflict Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of (or conditions that create opportunities for) conflict.perceived organizational support (POS) The degree to which employees believe an organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being.perception A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to their environment.personality The total number of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with the world around them.personality–job fit theory A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.personality traits Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior.person–organization fit A theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values and leave when there is no compatibility.physical abilities The capacity to do tasks that demand stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.piece-rate pay plan A pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed.planned change Change activities that are proactive, intentional, and goal-oriented.planning A process that includes defining goals, establishing strategy, and developing plans to coordinate activities.political behavior Activities that are not required as part of a person’s formal role in the organization but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization.political skill The ability to influence others so that one’s objectives are attained.position power The degree of influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization. This includes the power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.positive affect An affective dimension that consists of specific positive emotions such as excitement, enthusiasm, and elation at the high end.positive diversity climate In an organization, an environment of inclusiveness and an acceptance of diversity.positive organizational culture A culture that emphasizes building on employee strengths, rewards more than punishes, and emphasizes individual vitality and growth.positive organizational scholarship An area of OB research that studies how organizations develop human strengths, foster vitality, build resilience, and unlock potential.positivity offset The tendency of most individuals to experience a mildly positive mood at zero input (when nothing in particular is going on).power The capacity, discretion, and means to enforce one’s will over others.power distance The degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.prearrival stage The period of learning in the socialization process that occurs before a new employee joins the organization.prejudice An attitude representing broad, generalized feelings toward a group or its members that maintains the hierarchy between that group and other groups.presenteeism The act of working while ill or injured.prevention focus A self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations and avoiding failure.proactive personality People who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.problem A discrepancy between the current state and some desired state.problem formulation The stage of creative behavior that involves identifying a problem or opportunity requiring a solution that is yet unknown.problem-solving team A team of employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment.procedural justice The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 687 13/12/22 3:34 AM

688 Glossaryprocess conflict Conflict over how work gets done.process consultation A meeting in which a consultant assists a client in understanding process events with which they must deal and identifying processes that need improvement.processes Actions that individuals, groups, and organizations engage in as a result of inputs and that lead to certain outcomes.productivity The combination of the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization.profit-sharing plan An organization-wide program that distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability.promotion focus A self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment.psychological contract An unwritten agreement between employees and employers that establishes mutual expectations.psychological empowerment Employees’ belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, competence, meaningfulness of their job, and autonomy in their work.psychology The science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals.psychopathy The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm.punctuated-equilibrium model A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.randomness error The tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events.rational A style of decision making characterized by making consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints.rational decision-making model A decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave to maximize some outcome.realistic job previews A job tryout given to demonstrate to job seekers what they would be doing on the job if they were hired.reference groups Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong. People are motivated to conform to and adopt the norms of these groups.referent power Influence based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits.referral hiring When a hiring manager decides to hire a job-seeker based on their own previous experiences with that individual, or a recommendation from a referrer (e.g., a previous coworker).reflexivity A team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary.reinforcement theory A theory suggesting that behavior is a function of its consequences.relational job design Constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their work.relationship conflict Conflict based on interpersonal relationships.representative participation A system in which workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees.resilience Resistance to the adverse effects of stress and strain.resources Factors within an individual’s control that can be expended toward fulfilling desires, attaining goals, or meeting task demands.restraining forces Forces that hinder movement from the existing equilibrium.reward power Power based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable.risk aversion The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff.rituals Repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the organization, which goals are most important, which people are important, and which are expendable.role A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.role conflict A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.role expectations How others believe a person should act in a given situation.role perception An individual’s view of how to act in a given situation.selective perception The tendency to choose to interpret what one sees based on one’s interests, background, experience, and attitudes.self-concordance The degree to which people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.self-determination theory A meta-theory of motivation at work that is concerned with autonomy, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and the satisfaction of psychological work needs.self-efficacy An individual’s belief of being capable of performing a task.self-fulfilling prophecy A situation in which an individual’s behavior is determined by others’ expectations, even if untrue. In other words, if someone holds misrepresented or unfounded expectations about another person, that person may make these hypothetical, unfounded expectations into a reality.self-managed work team A team of employees who autonomously implement solutions and take responsibility for the outcomes of the solutions (responsibilities normally adopted by supervisors).self-monitoring A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust their behavior to external, situational factors.self-serving bias The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors.servant leadership A leadership style marked by going beyond the leader’s own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help followers grow and develop.sexual harassment Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment and creates a hostile work environment.sexual orientation People’s patterns of enduring physical, emotional, and/or romantic attraction toward others.Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 688 13/12/22 3:34 AM

Glossary 689shared leadership theory A theory that suggests leadership can become an emergent state in which leadership roles are distributed across followers, and all are capable of influencing one another.short-term orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past, honors traditions, and upholds their image.silence Discretionary withholding of suggestions, concerns, or opinions about work-related issues to persons who might be able to take appropriate action.simple structure An organizational structure characterized by a low degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization.situation strength theory A theory indicating that the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation.situational judgment tests Substantive selection tests that ask applicants how they would perform in a variety of job situations; the answers are then compared to the answers of high-performing employees.situational leadership theory (SLT) A contingency theory that suggests the appropriate leadership style depends on followers’ readiness (e.g., commitment and competence) to accomplish a specific task.skill variety The degree to which a job requires a variety of activities using different skills or talents.social categorization A process through which people make sense of others by constructing social categories, or groups sharing similar characteristics.social dominance theory The theory that prejudice and discrimination are based on a complex hierarchy, with one group dominating over another and the dominating group enjoying privilege not afforded to the subordinate group.social identity theory Perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups.social-learning theory The view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience.social loafing The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually.social psychology An area of psychology that blends concepts from psychology and sociology to focus on the influence of people on one another.socialization A process that enables new employees to acquire the social knowledge and necessary skills in order to adapt to the organization’s culture.sociology The study of people in relation to their social environment or culture.span of control The number of subordinates that a manager can direct efficiently and effectively.status A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.status characteristics theory A theory stating that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups.stereotype threat The degree to which we are concerned with being judged by or treated negatively based on a certain stereotype.stereotyping Judging someone based on one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.stigma Attributes that cannot be readily seen, are concealable, and convey an identity that is devalued in certain social contexts.strain The psychological, physiological, and behavioral consequences of stress.stress A generally unpleasant perception and appraisal of stressors.stressor Conditions or events that an individual perceives as challenging or threatening.strong culture A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared.structured interviews Planned interviews designed to gather job-related information.subcultures Minicultures within an organization, typically defined by department designations or geographical separation.substantive selection Methods used to determine the most qualified applicants from among those who meet the basic qualifications.substitutes Attributes, such as experience and training, that can replace the need for a leader’s support or ability to create structure.surface acting Hiding one’s feelings and forgoing emotional expressions in response to display rules.surface-level diversity Differences in easily perceived characteristics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, or age, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel but that may activate certain stereotypes.sustainability Maintaining practices over a long period of time because the tools or structures that support them are not damaged by the processes.synchronous communication Communication episodes in which both the sender(s) and receiver(s) are present, aware, and focused on the communication exchange.system justification theory The theory that group members often accept, rationalize, legitimate, or justify their experiences with inequality, prejudice, or discrimination.systematic study Looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects, and drawing conclusions based on scientific evidence.task conflict Conflict over content and goals of the work.task identity The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.task significance The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.task structure The degree to which job assignments are regimented or structured.team building High interaction among team members to increase trust and openness.team efficacy A team’s collective belief that they can succeed at their tasks.team identity A team member’s affinity for and sense of belongingness to their team.team performance The quantity and quality of a group’s work output.team structure An organizational structure that replaces departments with empowered teams, and that eliminates most horizontal boundaries and external barriers between customers and suppliers.Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 689 13/12/22 3:34 AM

690 Glossarytechnical skills The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise.technology The way in which an organization transfers its inputs into outputs.telecommuting Working from home, or anywhere else the employee chooses that is outside the physical workplace.terminal values Desirable end-states of existence; the goals a person would like to achieve during their lifetime.tokenism When management makes only a perfunctory effort to enhance representation to make it seem like the company values diversity.trait activation theory (TAT) A theory that predicts that some situations, events, or interventions “activate” a trait more than others.trait theories of leadership Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders.transactional leaders Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements, allocating rewards and punishment where needed, and (passively or actively) intervening when the situation calls for it.transfer of training Utilizing the knowledge, skills, and abilities learned from training on the job.transformational leaders Leaders who inspire, act as role models, and intellectually stimulate, develop, or mentor their followers, thus having a profound and extraordinary effect on them.trust A psychological state of mutual positive expectations between people who both depend on each other and are genuinely concerned for each other’s welfare.trust propensity How likely an employee is to trust a leader.two-factor theory A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. Also called motivation-hygiene theory.(un)ethical behavior Any actions that violate widely accepted moral norms. Conversely, ethical behaviors are any actions that meet or exceed widely accepted moral norms.(Un)ethical leadership The idea that leaders serve as ethical role models to followers and thus demonstrate appropriate (or inappropriate) behavior by using their power in (un)ethical ways and/or by treating others fairly (or unfairly).uncertainty avoidance A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.unity of command The idea that a subordinate should have only one superior to whom they are directly responsible.unstructured interviews Short, casual interviews made up of improvised questions.utilitarianism An ethical perspective in which decisions are made to provide the greatest good for all.value system A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity.values Basic convictions that some actions and outcomes are more morally, socially, or personally preferable than others.variable-pay program A pay plan that bases a portion or all of an employee’s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance.virtual structure A small, core organization that outsources major business functions.virtual team A team of employees that uses technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.vision A long-term strategy for attaining a goal or goals.vision statement A formal articulation of an organization’s vision or mission.voice Discretionary communication of suggestions, concerns, or opinions about work-related issues to persons who might be able to take appropriate action.wellness programs Organizationally supported programs that focus on the employees’ total physical and mental health.whistle-blowers Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders.withdrawal behavior The set of actions employees take to separate themselves from the organization.work-life spillover When psychological responses to one domain (e.g., positive or negative moods) are carried over into another domain and impact it in some way.workaholism A maladaptive mental state characterized by feeling compelled to work due to internal pressures, thinking about work even when not working, and going above and beyond what is reasonably expected (to one’s own detriment).worker An individual who contributes to the accomplishment of work goals.work group A group that interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help each group member perform within their respective area of responsibility.work sample tests Hands-on simulations of part or all of the work that applicants for routine jobs must perform.work specialization The degree to which tasks in an organization are subdivided into separate jobs.work team A group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs.workforce diversity The heterogenous characteristics of organizations, work groups, and teams that recognize their workers vary in gender, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and other characteristics.workforce inclusion The act of creating and maintaining workplaces that support and leverage the diversity of their members.workplace spirituality The recognition that people have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community.zero-sum approach An approach to reward allocation that treats the reward “pie” as fixed so that any gains by one individual are at the expense of another.Z03_ROBB0025_19_GE_GLOS.indd 690 13/12/22 3:34 AM

EndnotesChapter 1 1 Brown, “How Adam Neumann’s Over-the-Top Style Built WeWork. ‘This Is Not the Way Everybody Behaves,’” The Wall Street Journal, September 18, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/this-is-not-the-wayeverybody-behaves-how-adam-neumanns-over-the-topstyle-built-WeWork-11568823827; L. Burden, “WeWork Hit with 3 Suits Alleging Race Discrimination, Sexual Harassment,” HR Dive, July 15, 2020, https://www.hrdive.com/news/wework-hit-with-3-suits-allegingrace-discrimination-sexual-harassment/581507/; “Miguel McKelvey, Co-Founder of WeWork with Adam Neumann, to Leave Company,” Reuters, June 5, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-wework-moves/miguel-mckelvey-co-founder-of-wework-with-adamneumann-to-leave-company-idUSKBN23C25T2 B. Schneider, “The People Make the Place,” Personnel Psychology 40, no. 3 (1987): 437–53. 3 J. Bersin, L. Collins, D. Mallon, J. Moir, and R. Straub, “People Analytics: Gaining Speed,” in Global Human Capital Trends 2016: The New Organization: Different by Design (London, UK: Deloitte University Press, 2016): 87-95.4 R. Umoh, “The CEO of LinkedIn Shares the No. 1 Job Skill American Employees Are Lacking,” CNBC, April 26, 2018, https://www.cnbc.com/2018/04/26/linkedin-ceo-the-no-1-job-skill-american-employeeslack.html5 M. Ward, “The 5 Soft Skills That Will Get You Hired—and How to Learn Them,” CNBC, April 26, 2017, https://www.cnbc.com/2017/04/26/the-5-softskills-that-will-get-you-hired-and-how-to-learn-them.html6 “Survey: Few CFOs Plan to Invest in Interpersonal Skills Development for Their Teams,” Accountemps [press release], June 19, 2013, on the Accountemps website, http://accountemps.rhi.mediaroom.com/2013-06-19-Survey-Few-CFOs-Plan-to-Invest-inInterpersonal-Skills-Development-for-Their-Teams7 Y.-M. Lim, T. H. Lee, C. S. Yap, and C. C. Ling, “Employability Skills, Personal Qualities, and Early Employment Problems of Entry-Level Auditors: Perspectives From Employers, Lecturers, Auditors, and Students,” Journal of Education for Business 91, no. 4 (2016): 185–92.8 Fortune 100 Best Companies to Work For 2020, Great Place to Work, 2020, https://www.greatplacetowork.com/best-workplaces/100-best/20209 I. S. Fulmer, B. Gerhart, and K. S. Scott, “Are the 100 Best Better? An Empirical Investigation of the Relationship Between Being a ‘Great Place to Work’ and Firm Performance,” Personnel Psychology 56, no. 4 (2003): 965–93.10 A. L. Rubenstein, M. B. Eberly, T. W. Lee, and T. R. Mitchell, “Surveying the Forest: A Meta-Analysis, Moderator Investigation, and Future-Oriented Discussion of the Antecedents of Voluntary Employee Turnover,” Personnel Psychology 71 (2018): 23–65.11 C. M. Porter, S.-E. Woo, D. G. Allen, and M. G. Keith, “How Do Instrumental and Expressive Network Positions Relate to Turnover? 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Twenge, and N. Guenole, “Placing Job Characteristics in Context: Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis of Changes in Job Characteristics Since 1975,” Journal of Management 44, no. 1 (2018): 352–86. 17 S. J. Ashford, B. Barker Caza, and E. M. Reid, “From Surviving to Thriving in the Gig Economy: A Research Agenda for Individuals in the New World of Work,” Research in Organizational Behavior 38 (2018): 23–41.18 M. Cole, “New Managers Lack the Training They Need to Succeed,” TD Magazine, March 2019, https://www.td.org/research-reports/developing-new-managers19 D. Meinert, “Background on Bosses,” HR Magazine, August 2014, 29.20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 N. G. Peterson, M. D. Mumford, W. C. Borman, P. Richard Jeanneret, E. A. Fleishman, K. Y. Levin, M. A. Campion, M. S. Mayfield, F. P. Morgeson, K. Pearlman, M. K. Gowing, A. R. Lancaster, M. B. Silver, and D. M. 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692 Endnotes46 M. Taves, “If I Could Have More Data... ,” The Wall Street Journal, March 24, 2014, R5. 47 E. Gamerman, “When the Art Is Watching You,” The Wall Street Journal, December 12, 2014, D1–D2. 48 V. Monga, “What Is All That Data Worth?” The Wall Street Journal, October 13, 2014, B3, B6. 49 E. Dwoskin and Y. Koh, “Twitter Pushes Deeper into Data,” The Wall Street Journal, April 16, 2014, B2. 50 F. L. Oswald, T. S. Behrend, D. J. Putka, and E. Sinar, “Big Data in Industrial-Organizational Psychology and Human Resource Management: Forward Progress for Organizational Research and Practice,” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 7 (2020): 505–33.51 “What Will Transform the Way People Work?” HR Magazine (December 2014): 16. 52 J. 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Endnotes 693Social Responsibility: A Person-Centric Systematic Review,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 38 (2017): 225–46.108 D. Thorpe, “Why CSR? The Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility Will Move You to Act,” Forbes(May 18, 2013), http://www.forbes.com/sites/devinthorpe/2013/05/18/why-csr-the-benefits-ofcorporate-social-responsibility-will-move-you-to-act/109 H. Aguinis and A. Glavas, “On Corporate Social Responsibility, Sensemaking, and the Search for Meaningfulness Through Work,” Journal of Management 45, no. 3 (2019): 1057–86. 110 Q. Wang, J. Dou, and S. Jia, “A Meta-Analytic Review of Corporate Social Responsibility and Corporate Financial Performance: The Moderating Effect of Contextual Factors,” Business & Society 55, no. 8 (2016): 1083–121.111 A. Hurst, “Being ‘Good’ Isn’t the Only Way to Go,” The New York Times, April 20, 2014, 4. 112 D. Thorpe, “Why CSR?” 113 M. C. Bolino, H.-H. Hsiung, J. Harvey, and J. A. LePine, “‘Well, I’m Tired of Tryin’! Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Citizenship Fatigue,” Journal of Applied Psychology 100, no. 1 (2015): 56–74. 114 G. E. Newman and D. M. Cain, “Tainted Altruism: When Doing Some Good Is Evaluated as Doing Worse Than Doing No Good at All,” Psychological Science 25, no. 3 (2014): 648–55.115 Ibid. 116 Ibid. 117 N. Fallon, “What Is Corporate Responsibility?” Business News Daily (December 22, 2014), http://www.businessnewsdaily.com/4679-corporate-socialresponsibility.html118 See I. Filatotchev and C. Nakajima, “Corporate Governance, Responsible Managerial Behavior, and Corporate Social Responsibility: Organizational Efficiency Versus Organizational Legitimacy?” The Academy of Management Perspectives 28, no. 3 (2014): 289–306. 119 J. Bayle-Cordier, P. Mirvis, and B. Moingeon, “Projecting Different Identities: A Longitudinal Study of the ‘Whipsaw’ Effects of Changing Leadership Discourse About the Triple Bottom Line,” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 51, no. 3 (2015): 336–74; A. Beard, “Why Ben & Jerry’s Speaks Out,” Harvard Business Review, January 13, 2021, https://hbr.org/2021/01/why-ben-jerrys-speaks-out; Ben & Jerry’s [website], accessed January 28, 2021, https://www.benjerry.com; B. S. Dennis and C. P. Neck, “The Scoop on Ben & Jerry’s Inc.: An Examination of Corporate Social Responsibility,” Journal of Managerial Psychology 13, no. 5/6 (1998): 387–93; A. Field, “Ben & Jerry’s, Poster Child for the B Corp Movement, Becomes a B Corp,” Forbes, October 22, 2012, https://www.forbes.com/sites/annefield/2012/10/22/ben-jerrys-poster-child-for-the-b-corp-movementbecomes-a-b-corp/?sh=319d16f752cc; D. Gelles, “How the Social Mission of Ben & Jerry’s Survived Being Gobbled Up,” The New York Times, August 21, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/23/business/how-ben-jerrys-social-mission-survived-beinggobbled-up.html120 Mitchell, “A Dynamic, Inclusive, and Affective Evolutionary View of Organizational Behavior.”121 F. Luthans and C. M. Youssef, “Emerging Positive Organizational Behavior,” Journal of Management 33, no. 3 (2007): 321–49.122 “Five Jobs That Won’t Exist in 10 Years... and One New Title You’ll Start to See,” HR Magazine, February 2014, 16.123 Ashford et al., “From Surviving to Thriving in the Gig Economy.”124 Ibid.125 G. M. Spreitzer, L. Cameron, and L. Garrett, “Alternative Work Arrangements: Two Images of the New World of Work,” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 4 (2017): 473–99. 126 Ashford et al., “From Surviving to Thriving in the Gig Economy.”127 Ibid. 128 V. 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696 Endnotes96 B. Major and C. R. Kaiser, “Ideology and the Maintenance of Group Inequality,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 20, no. 5 (2017): 582–92. 97 M. A. Craig, J. M. Rucker, and J. A. Richeson, “The Pitfalls and Promise of Increasing Racial Diversity: Threat, Contact, and Race Relations in the 21st Century,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 27, no. 3 (2018): 188–93.98 E. E. Umphress, K. Smith-Crowe, A. P. Brief, J. Dietz, and M. Baskerville Watkins, “When Birds of a Feather Flock Together and When They Do Not: Status Composition, Social Dominance Orientation, and Organizational Attractiveness,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 2 (2007): 396–409. 99 E. E. Umphress, A. L. Simmons, W. R. Boswell, and M. del Carmen Triana, “Managing Discrimination in Selection: The Influence of Directives From an Authority and Social Dominance Orientation,” Journal of Applied Psychology 93, no. 5 (2008): 982–93. 100 K. Aquino, M. M. Stewart, and A. Reed II, “How Social Dominance Orientation and Job Status Influence Perceptions of African-American Affirmative Action Beneficiaries,” Personnel Psychology58 (2005): 703–44.101 A. Murrell, “On the Tennis Court and in the Workplace: When Unconscious Bias Isn’t Unconscious,” Forbes, September 20, 2018, https://www.forbes.com/sites/audreymurrell/2018/09/20/on-the-tennis-court-and-in-the-workplace-whenunconscious-bias-isnt-unconscious/#1a3d190f5aa4.102 Ibid. 103 A. M. Grant (AdamMGrant), “When a man argues with an umpire, it’s passion. When a woman does it, it’s a meltdown. When a black woman does it, it’s a penalty” [Tweet], September 8, 2018, 6:29PM, https://twitter.com/AdamMGrant/status/1038600245389799425104 N. P. Salter, K. Sawyer, and S. T. Gebhardt, “How Does Intersectionality Impact Work Attitudes? The Effect of Layered Group Memberships in a Field Sample,” Journal of Business and Psychology (in press). 105 A. Shelby Rosette, R. Ponce de Leon, C. Zhou Koval, and D. A. Harrison, “Intersectionality: Connecting Experiences of Gender with Race at Work,” Research in Organizational Behavior 38 (2018): 1–22. 106 J. L. Berdahl and C. Moore, “Workplace Harassment: Double Jeopardy for Minority Women,” Journal of Applied Psychology 91, no. 2 (2006): 426–36. 107 E. Derous, A. M. Ryan, and H.-H. D. Nguyen, “Multiple Categorization in Resume Screening: Examining Effects on Hiring Discrimination Against Arab Applicants in Field and Lab Settings,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 33 (2012): 544–70. 108 A. Shelby Rosette, C. Zhou Koval, A. Ma, and R. Livingston, “Race Matters for Women Leaders: Intersectional Effects on Agentic Deficiencies and Penalties,” The Leadership Quarterly 27 (2016): 429–45. 109 E. V. Hall, A. V. Hall, A. D. Galinsky, and K. W. Phillips, “MOSAIC: A Model of Stereotyping Through Associated and Intersectional Categories,” Academy of Management Review 44, no. 3 (2019): 643–72. 110 G. T. Chao and H. Moon, “The Cultural Mosaic: A Metatheory for Understanding the Complexity of Culture,” Journal of Applied Psychology 90, no. 6 (2005): 1128–40; Hall et al., “MOSAIC.”111 P. Chuapetcharasopon, L. Neville, W. L. Adair, S. E. Brodt, T. R. Lituchy, and A. A. Racine, “Cultural Mosaic Beliefs as a New Measure of the Psychological Climate for Diversity: Individual Distinctiveness and Synergy in Culturally Diverse Teams,” International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 18, no. 1 (2018): 7–32. 112 B. Zolfaghari, G. Moellering, T. Clark, and G. Dietz, “How Do We Adopt Multiple Cultural Identities? A Multidimensional Operationalization of the Sources of Culture,” European Management Journal34, no. 2 (2016): 102–13.113 L. M. Leslie, J. E. Bono, Y. Kim, and G. R. Beaver, “On Melting Pots and Salad Bowls: A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Identity-Blind and Identity Conscious Diversity Ideologies,” Journal of Applied Psychology 105, no. 5 (2020): 453–71.114 F. P. Morgeson, S. E. Humphrey, and M. C. Reeder, “Team Selection,” in N. Schmitt (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Personnel Assessment and Selection (Oxford UK: Oxford University Press, 2012): 1–30.115 S. L. Wilk and E. E. Makarius, “Choosing the Company You Keep: Racial Relational Demography Outside and Inside of Work,” Organization Science 26, no. 5 (2015): 1316–31.116 H. van Dijk, M. L. van Engen, and D. van Knippenberg, “Defying Conventional Wisdom: A Meta-Analytical Examination of the Differences Between Demographic and Job-Related Diversity Relationships with Performance,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 119, no. 1 (2012): 38–53; and D. van Knippenberg and J. N. Mell, “Past, Present, and Potential Future of Team Diversity Research: From Compositional Diversity to Emergent Diversity,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 136 (2016): 135–45. 117 M. Shemla, B. Meyer, L. Greer, K. A. Jehn, “A Review of Perceived Diversity in Teams: Does How Members Perceive Their Team’s Composition Affect Team Processes and Outcomes?” Journal of Organizational Behavior 37 (2016): S89–S106. 118 J. S. Bunderson and G. S. Van der Vegt, “Diversity and Inequality in Management Teams: A Review and Integration of Research on Vertical and Horizontal Member Differences,” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 5 (2018): 47–73. 119 J. Li, B. Meyer, M. Shemla, and J. Wegge, “From Being Diverse to Becoming Diverse: A Dynamic Team Diversity Theory,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 39 (2018): 956–70.120 See, for example, J. S. Chun and J. N. Choi, “Members’ Needs, Intragroup Conflict, and Group Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 3 (2014): 437–50.121 D. M. Fisher, S. T. Bell, E. C. Dierdorff, and J. A. Belohlav, “Facet Personality and Surface-Level Diversity as Team Mental Model Antecedents: Implications for Implicit Coordination,” Journal of Applied Psychology 97, no. 4 (2012): 825–41. 122 D. S. Staples and L. Zhao, “The Effects of Cultural Diversity in Virtual Teams Versus Face-to-Face Teams,” Group Decision and Negotiation (July 2006): 389–406. 123 R. B. Lount, O. J. Sheldon, F. Rink, and K. W. Phillips, “Biased Perceptions of Racially Diverse Teams and Their Consequences for Resource Support,” Organization Science 26, no. 5 (2015): 1351–64. 124 K. J. Klein, A. P. Knight, J. C. Ziegert, B. C. Lim, and J. L. Saltz, “When Team Members’ Values Differ: The Moderating Role of Team Leadership,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes114, no. 1 (2011): 25–36.125 J. S. Chun and J. N. Choi, “Members’ Needs, Intragroup Conflict, and Group Performance.”126 A. J. Ferguson and R. S. Peterson, “Sinking Slowly: Diversity in Propensity to Trust Predicts Downward Trust Spirals in Small Groups,” Journal of Applied Psychology 100, no. 4 (2015): 1012–24. 127 S. T. Bell, A. J. Villado, M. A. Lukasik, L. Belau, and A. L. Briggs, “Getting Specific About Demographic Diversity Variables and Team Performance Relationships: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Management 37, no. 3 (2011): 709–43. 128 S. Y. Cheung, Y. Gong, M. Wang, L. Zhou, and J. Shi, “When and How Does Functional Diversity Influence Team Innovation? The Mediating Role of Knowledge Sharing and the Moderation Role of Affect-Based Trust in a Team,” Human Relations 69, no. 7 (2016): 1507–31.129 C. E. Eesley, D. H. Hsu, and E. B. Roberts, “The Contingent Effects of Top Management Teams on Venture Performance: Aligning Founding Team Composition with Innovation Strategy and Commercialization Environment,” Strategic Management Journal 35 (2014): 1798–817. 130 S. E. Gaither, E. P. Apfelbaum, H. J. Birnbaum, L. G. Babbitt, and S. R. Sommers, “Mere Membership in Racially Diverse Groups Reduces Conformity,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 9, no. 4 (2018): 402–10.131 E. B. Smith and Y. Hou, “Redundant Heterogeneity and Group Performance,” Organization Science 26, no. 1 (2015): 37–51. 132 H. Huettermann, S. Doering, and S. Boerner, “Understanding the Development of Team Identification: A Qualitative Study in UN Peacebuilding Teams,” Journal of Business and Psychology 32, no. 2 (2017): 217–34. 133 D. C. Lau and J. K. Murnighan, “Demographic Diversity and Faultlines: The Compositional Dynamics of Organizational Groups,” Academy of Management Review 23, no. 2 (1998): 325–40; and M. Kulkarni, “Language-Based Diversity and Faultlines in Organizations,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 36, no. 1 (2015): 128–46.134 T. M. Spoelma and A. P. J. Ellis, “Fuse or Fracture? Threat as a Moderator of the Effects of Diversity Faultlines in Teams,” Journal of Applied Psychology 102, no. 9 (2017): 1344–59.135 L. M. Leslie, “A Status-Based Multilevel Model of Ethnic Diversity and Work Unit Performance,” Journal of Management 43, no. 2 (2017): 426–54. 136 See M. B. Thatcher and P. C. Patel, “Group Faultlines: A Review, Integration, and Guide to Future Research,” Journal of Management 38, no. 4 (2012): 969–1009. 137 K. Bezrukova, S. M. B. Thatcher, K. A. Jehn, and C. S. Spell, “The Effects of Alignments: Examining Group Faultlines, Organizational Cultures, and Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 97, no. 1 (2012): 77–92.138 R. Rico, M. Sanchez-Manzanares, M. Antino, and D. Lau, “Bridging Team Faultlines by Combining Task Role Assignment and Goal Structure Strategies,” Journal of Applied Psychology 97, no. 2 (2012): 407–20; and Smith and Hou, “Redundant Heterogeneity and Group Performance.”139 A. C. Homan, C. Buengeler, R. A. Eckhoff, W. 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Harrison, “What’s Different About Business Overseas? One Map Says It All,” Forbes, February 25, 2015, https://www.forbes.com/sites/kateharrison/2015/02/25/whats-different-about-business-overseasthis-map-says-it-all/#4e84496e3937150 M. J. Gelfand, L. H. Nishii, and J. L. Raver, “On the Nature and Importance of Cultural TightnessLooseness,” Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006): 1225–44.151 H. Hayashi, “Natural Disasters in Japan,” in A. Marquina (ed.), Global Warming and Climate Change(London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010): 118–32.152 M. J. Gelfand, J. L. Raver, L. Nishii, L. M. Leslie, J. Lun, B. Chong Lim, ... and S. Yamaguchi, “Differences Between Tight and Loose Cultures: A 33-Nation Study,” Science 332, no. 6033 (2011): 1100–4; D. Nussbaum, “Tight and Loose Cultures: A Conversation with Michele Gelfand,” Behavioral Scientist, January 17, 2019, https://behavioralscientist.org/tight-and-loose-cultures-a-conversation-withmichele-gelfand/153 S. Vedantam, T. Lu, T. Boyle, J. Schmidt, and L. Wahba, “Playing Tight and Loose: How Rules Shape Our Lives,” NPR, April 6, 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/04/06/828257385/playing-tight-and-loose-how-rules-shape-our-lives.154 T. Rabl, M. Jayasinghe, B. Gerhart, and T. M. Kühlmann, “A Meta-Analysis of Country Differences in the High-Performance Work System-Business Performance Relationship: The Roles of National Culture and Managerial Discretion,” Journal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 6 (2014): 1011–41. 155 L. Turner and A. Suflas, “Global Diversity—One Program Won’t Fit All.”156 S. Lucas, “Hilton’s $21 Million Reason to Honor a Dishwasher’s Religious Schedule Request,” Inc., January 17, 2019, https://www.inc.com/suzannelucas/hilton-21-million-reason-to-honor-adishwashers-religious-schedule-request.html157 A. Liptak, “In a Case of Religious Dress, Justices Explore the Obligations of Employers,” The New York Times, February 25, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/26/us/in-a-case-of-religious-dressjustices-explore-the-obligations-of-employers.html158 E. B. King and A. S. Ahmad, “An Experimental Field Study of Interpersonal Discrimination Toward Muslim Job Applicants,” Personnel Psychology 63, no. 4 (2010): 881–906.159 M. Moeller and J. F. Maley, “MNC Considerations in Identifying and Managing LGB Expatriate Stigmatization,” International Journal of Management Reviews 20 (2018): 325–42.160 P. Bhaskar-Shrinivas, D. A. Harrison, M. A. Shaffer, and D. M. Luk, “Input-Based and Time-Based Models of International Adjustment: Meta-Analytic Evidence and Theoretical Extensions,” Academy of Management Journal 48, no. 2 (2005): 257–81. 161 B. M. Firth, G. Chen, B. L. Kirkman, and K. 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698 Endnotes190 E. G. Ufkes, J. Calcagno, D. E. Glasford, and J. F. Dovidio, “Understanding How Common Ingroup Identity Undermines Collective Action Among Disadvantaged-Group Members,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 63 (2016): 26–35. 191 J. F. Dovidio, A. Love, F. M. H. Schellhaas, and M. Hewstone, “Reducing Intergroup Bias Through Intergroup Contact: Twenty Years of Progress and Future Directions,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 20, no. 5 (2017): 606–20. 192 T. F. Pettigrew and L. R. Tropp, “A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90, no. 5 (2006): 751–83.193 L. R. Tropp and F. K. Barlow, “Making Advantaged Racial Groups Care About Inequality: Intergroup Contact as a Route to Psychological Investment,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 27, no. 3 (2018): 194–99.194 W. Ma, R. Feng, B. Lu, Q. Xie, L. Jiang, and X. Liu, “The Reducing Effect of Positive Imagined Intergroup Contact on Intergroup Attributional Bias,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 49 (2019): 168–77; R. Wölfer, O. Christ, K. Schmid, N. Tausch, F. M. Buchallik, S. Vertovec, and M. Hewstone, “Indirect Contact Predicts Direct Contact: Longitudinal Evidence and the Mediating Role of Intergroup Anxiety,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 116, no. 2 (2019): 277–95. 195 S. Zhou, E. Page-Gould, A. Aron, A. Moyer, and M. Hewstone, “The Extended Contact Hypothesis: A Meta-Analysis on 20 Years of Research,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 23, no. 2 (2019): 132–60. 196 L. E. Hayward, L. R. Tropp, M. J. Hornsey, and F. K. Barlow, “Toward a Comprehensive Understanding of Intergroup Contact: Descriptions and Mediators of Positive and Negative Contact Among Majority and Minority Groups,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43, no. 3(2017): 347–64. 197 J. Kende, K. Phalet, W. Van den Noortgate, A. Kara, and R. Fischer, “Equality Revisited: A Cultural Meta-Analysis of Intergroup Contact and Prejudice,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 9, no. 8 (2018): 887–95.198 C. T. Tadmore, Y.-Y. Hong, M. M. Chao, and A. Cohen, “The Tolerance Benefits of Multicultural Experiences Depend on the Perception of Available Mental Resources,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 115, no. 3 (2018): 398–426. 199 C. A. Moss-Racusin and H. Rabasco, “Reducing Gender Identity Bias Through Imagined Intergroup Contact,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 48 (2018): 457–74.200 L. Zhang, “A Fair Game? Racial Bias and Repeated Interaction Between NBA Coaches and Players,” Administrative Science Quarterly 62, no. 4 (2017): 603–25.201 V. Eswaran, “The Business Case for Diversity in the Workplace Is Now Overwhelming,” World Economic Forum, April 29, 2019, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/04/business-case-for-diversity-in-theworkplace/; V. Hunt, S. Prince, S. Dixon-Fyle, and L. 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Rawski and S. A. Conroy, “Beyond Demographic Identities and Motivation to Learn: The Effect of Organizational Identification on Diversity Training Outcomes,” Journal of Organizational Behavior41 (2020): 461–78.226 J. M. Madera, E. B. King, and M. R. Hebl, “Enhancing the Effects of Sexual Orientation Diversity Training: The Effects of Setting Goals and Training Mentors on Attitudes and Behaviors,” Journal of Business and Psychology 28 (2013): 79–91. 227 Roberson, “Diversity in the Workplace.” 228 A. O. Herdman and A. McMillan-Capehart, “Establishing a Diversity Program Is Not Enough: Exploring the Determinants of Diversity Climate,” Journal of Business and Psychology 25 (2010): 39–53. 229 Ulta, “Champion Diversity,” from Ulta website, accessed February 5, 2021, https://www.ulta.com/company/about-us/champion-diversity/230 See, for instance, B. R. Ragins, J. A. Gonzalez, K. Ehrhardt, and R. 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Kennedy, “The Effects of Diversity Climate on the Work Attitudes of Refugee Employees: The Mediating Role of Psychological Capital and Moderating Role of Ethnic Identity,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 105 (2018): 147–58; S. D. Volpone, D. J. Marquardt, W. J. Casper, and D. R. Avery, “Minimizing Cross-Cultural Maladaptation: How Minority Status facilitates Change in International Acculturation,” Journal of Applied Psychology 103, no. 3 (2018): 249–69. 235 J. Hofhuis, K. I. van der Zee, and S. Otten, “Social Identity Patterns in Culturally Diverse Organizations: The Role of Diversity Climate,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 42 (2012): 964–89. 236 D. M. Gardner and A. M. Ryan, “What’s in It for You? Demographics and Self-Interest Perceptions in Diversity Promotion,” Journal of Applied Psychology 105, no. 9 (2020): 1062–72.237 L. Windscheid, L. Bowes-Sperry, D. L. Kidder, H. Kwan Cheung, M. Morner, and F. Lievens, “Actions Speak Louder Than Words: Outsiders’ Perceptions of Diversity Mixed Messages,” Journal of Applied Psychology101, no. 9 (2016): 1329–41.238 M. Tremblay, “Humor in Teams: Multilevel Relationships Between Humor Climate, Inclusion, Trust, and Citizenship Behaviors,” Journal of Business and Psychology 32 (2017): 363–78. 239 See, for instance, D. D. Dickens, V. Y. Womack, and T. Dimes, “Managing Hypervisibility: An Exploration of Theory and Research on Identity Shifting Strategies in the Workplace Among Black Women,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 113 (2019): 153–63.Z04_ROBB0025_19_GE_NOTE.indd 698 15/12/22 6:59 PM